hearing

hear·ing

H0107100 (hîr′ĭng)n.1. The sense by which sound is perceived; the capacity to hear.2. Range of audibility; earshot.3. An opportunity to be heard.4. Law a. A legal proceeding in which evidence is taken and arguments are given as the basis for a decision to be issued, either on some preliminary matter or on the merits of the case.b. A session, as of an investigatory committee or a grand jury, at which testimony is taken from witnesses.adj. Able to hear: a deaf child born to hearing parents.

hearing

(ˈhɪərɪŋ) n1. (Physiology) the faculty or sense by which sound is perceived. 2. an opportunity to be listened to3. (General Physics) the range within which sound can be heard; earshot4. (Law) the investigation of a matter by a court of law, esp the preliminary inquiry into an indictable crime by magistrates5. (Law) a formal or official trial of an action or lawsuit

hear•ing

(ˈhɪər ɪŋ)

n. 1. the faculty or sense by which sound is perceived. 2. the act of perceiving sound. 3. opportunity to be heard: to grant a hearing. 4. a. a preliminary legal examination of charges and evidence by a magistrate to determine whether prosecution is justified. b. a session in which testimony and arguments are presented, esp. before a judge, in a lawsuit. 5. earshot. [1175–1225]

Hearing

See also deafness; ear; perception; sound.
acoumetrythe measurement of acuteness of hearing. — acoumeter, n. — acoumetric, adj.anaudialoss or absence of the power of hearing.audiclavean instrument that aids hearing.audiology1. the branch of medical science that studies hearing, especially impaired hearing.
2. the treatment of persons with impaired hearing. — audiologist, n.audiometeran instrument for testing hearing. Also called sonometer. — audiometry, n. — audiometric, adj.audiometrya testing of hearing ability by frequencies and various levels of loudness. — audiometrist, audiometrician, n. — audiometric, audiometrical, adj.auditognosisMedicine. the sense by which sounds are understood and interpreted.otocleisisa closure of the hearing passages.otomyastheniaMedicine. a weakness of the ear muscles causing poor selection and amplification of sounds. — otomyasthenic, adj.otophone1. an external appliance used to aid hearing; a hearing aid.
2. Medicine. a tube used in the auscultation of the ear.otosisa defect in hearing causing a false impression of sounds made by others.paracusisdefective sense of hearing. Also paracousia.phonisma sound or a sensation of hearing produced by stimulus of another sense, as taste, smell, etc.sonometeraudiometer. — sonometry, n. — sonometric, adj.

Thesaurus

Noun	1.	hearing - (law) a proceeding (usually by a court) where evidence is taken for the purpose of determining an issue of fact and reaching a decision based on that evidencelegal proceeding, proceeding, proceedings - (law) the institution of a sequence of steps by which legal judgments are invokedadministrative hearing - a hearing that takes place outside the judicial process before hearing examiners who have been granted judicial authority specifically for the purpose of conducting such hearingscompetence hearing - a hearing to determine legal capacity (to determine whether the defendant can understand the charges and cooperate with a lawyer in preparing a defense)fair hearing - a hearing that is granted in extraordinary situations where the normal judicial process would be inadequate to secure due process because the person would be harmed or denied their rights before a judicial remedy became available (as in deportation or loss of welfare benefits)quo warranto - a hearing to determine by what authority someone has an office or franchise or libertylaw, jurisprudence - the collection of rules imposed by authority; "civilization presupposes respect for the law"; "the great problem for jurisprudence to allow freedom while enforcing order"
	2.	hearing - an opportunity to state your case and be heard; "they condemned him without a hearing"; "he saw that he had lost his audience"audiencechance, opportunity - a possibility due to a favorable combination of circumstances; "the holiday gave us the opportunity to visit Washington"; "now is your chance"
	3.	hearing - the range within which a voice can be heard; "the children were told to stay within earshot"earreach, earshotreach, range - the limits within which something can be effective; "range of motion"; "he was beyond the reach of their fire"
	4.	hearing - the act of hearing attentively; "you can learn a lot by just listening"; "they make good music--you should give them a hearing"listeningauscultation - listening to sounds within the body (usually with a stethoscope)sensing, perception - becoming aware of something via the sensesrehearing, relistening - the act of hearing again
	5.	hearing - a session (of a committee or grand jury) in which witnesses are called and testimony is taken; "the investigative committee will hold hearings in Chicago"session - a meeting for execution of a group's functions; "it was the opening session of the legislature"confirmation hearing - a hearing held by the US Senate to gather information on whether to approve or reject candidates for high federal office who are nominated by the president
	6.	hearing - the ability to hear; the auditory faculty; "his hearing was impaired"audition, auditory modality, auditory sense, sense of hearingauditory system - the sensory system for hearingsense modality, sensory system, modality - a particular senseexteroception - sensitivity to stimuli originating outside of the bodyear - good hearing; "he had a keen ear"; "a good ear for pitch"absolute pitch, perfect pitch - the ability to identify the pitch of a tone
Adj.	1.	hearing - able to perceive sounddeaf - lacking or deprived of the sense of hearing wholly or in part

hearing

noun1. sense of hearing, auditory perception, ear, aural faculty His mind still seemed clear and his hearing was excellent.2. inquiry, trial, investigation, industrial tribunal The judge adjourned the hearing until next Tuesday.3. chance to speak, interview, audience, audition a means of giving a candidate a fair hearing4. earshot, reach, range, hearing distance, auditory range No one spoke disparagingly of her father in her hearing.Related words
adjective audio

hearing

noun1. The sense by which sound is perceived:audition, ear.2. Range of audibility:earshot, sound.3. A chance to be heard:audience, audition.4. The examination and deciding upon evidence, charges, and claims in court:trial.

Translations

听力听力所及的距离审讯倾听

hear

(hiə) verb – past tense, past participle heard (həːd) – 1. to (be able to) receive (sounds) by ear. I don't hear very well; Speak louder – I can't hear you; I didn't hear you come in.听见2. to listen to for some purpose. A judge hears court cases; Part of a manager's job is to hear workers' complaints.审理3. to receive information, news etc, not only by ear. I've heard that story before; I hear that you're leaving; `Have you heard from your sister?' `Yes, I got a letter from her today'; I've never heard of him – who is he? This is the first I've heard of the plan. 听到，得知 ˈhearing noun1. the ability to hear. My hearing is not very good.听力2. the distance within which something can be heard. I don't want to tell you when so many people are within hearing; I think we're out of hearing now.听力所及的距离3. an act of listening. We ought to give his views a fair hearing.倾听4. a court case. The hearing is tomorrow.审讯ˈhearing-aid noun a small electronic instrument which helps deaf people to hear better by making sounds louder by means of an amplifier. 助听器ˈhearsay (-sei) noun that which one has been told about by others but for which one has otherwise no evidence. I never trust anything that I learn by hearsay. 传闻，风闻 hear! hear! a shout to show that one agrees with what a speaker has said (eg in Parliament or at a meeting). 说得对！I/he etc will/would not hear of I, he etc will or would not allow. They would not hear of her going home alone, and insisted on going with her. 允许/不允许，同意/不同意

hearing

→ 听力zhCN

I have a hearing aid → 我戴着助听器

hearing

hearing:

see earear,
organ of hearing and equilibrium. The human ear consists of outer, middle, and inner parts. The outer ear is the visible portion; it includes the skin-covered flap of cartilage known as the auricle, or pinna, and the opening (auditory canal) leading to the eardrum (tympanic
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Hearing (human)

The general perceptual behavior and the specific responses that are made in relation to sound stimuli. The auditory system consists of the ear and the auditory nervous system. The ear comprises outer, middle, and inner ear. The outer ear, visible on the surface of the body, directs sounds to the middle ear, which converts sounds into vibrations of the fluid that fills the inner ear. The inner ear contains the vestibular and the auditory sensory organs. See Ear (vertebrate)

The auditory part of the inner ear, known as the cochlea because of its snaillike shape, analyzes sound in a way that resembles spectral analysis. It contains the sensory cells that convert sounds into nerve signals to be conducted through the auditory portion of the eighth cranial nerve to higher brain centers. The neural code in the auditory nerve is transformed as the information travels through a complex system of nuclei connected by fiber tracts, known as the ascending auditory pathways. They carry auditory information to the auditory cortex, which is the part of the sensory cortex where perception and interpretation of sounds are believed to take place. Interaction between the neural pathways of the two ears makes it possible for a person to determine the direction of a sound's source. See Brain

Role of the ear

The pinna, the projecting part of the outer ear, collects sound, but because it is small in relation to the wavelengths of sound that are important for human hearing, the pinna plays only a minor role in hearing. The ear canal acts as a resonator: it increases the sound pressure at the tympanic membrane in the frequency range between 1500 and 5000 Hz. The difference between the arrival time of a sound at each of the two ears and the difference in the intensity of the sound that reaches each ear are used by the auditory nervous system to determine the location of the sound source.

Sound that reaches the tympanic membrane causes the membrane to vibrate, and these vibrations set in motion the three small bones of the middle ear: the malleus, the incus, and the stapes. The footplate of the stapes is located in an opening of the cochlear bone—the oval window. Moving in a pistonlike fashion, the stapes sets the cochlear fluid into motion and thereby converts sound (pressure fluctuations in the air) into motion of the cochlear fluid. Motion of the fluid in the cochlea begins the neural process known as hearing.

There are two small muscles in the middle ear: the tensor tympani and the stapedius muscles. The former pulls the manubrium of the malleus inward, while the latter is attached to the stapes and pulls the stapes in a direction that is perpendicular to its pistonlike motion. The stapedius muscle is the smallest striated muscle in the body, and it contracts in response to an intense sound. This is known as the acoustic middle-ear reflex. The muscle's contraction reduces sound transmission through the middle ear and thus acts as a regulator of input to the cochlea. Perhaps a more important function of the stapedius muscle is that it contracts immediately before and during a person's own vocalization, reducing the sensitivity of the speaker's ears to his or her own voice and possibly reducing the masking effect of an individual's own voice. The role of the tensor tympani muscle is less well understood, but it is thought that contraction of the tensor tympani muscle facilitates proper ventilation of the middle-ear cavity. These two muscles are innervated by the facial (VIIth) nerve for the stapedius and the trigeminal (Vth) nerve for the tensor tympani. The acoustic stapedius reflex plays an important role in the clinical diagnosis of disorders affecting the middle ear, the cochlea, and the auditory nerve.

Vibrations in the cochlear fluid set up a traveling wave on the basilar membrane of the cochlea. When tones are used to set the cochlear fluid into vibration, one specific point on the basilar membrane will vibrate with a higher amplitude than any other. Therefore, a frequency scale can be laid out along the basilar membrane, with low frequencies near the apex and high frequencies near the base of the cochlea.

The sensory cells that convert the motion of the basilar membrane into a neural code in individual auditory nerve fibers are located along the basilar membrane. They are also known as hair cells, because they have hairlike structures on their surfaces. The hair cells in the mammalian cochlea function as mechanoreceptors: motion of the basilar membrane causes deflection of the hairs, starting a process that eventually results in a change in the discharge rate of the nerve fiber connected to each hair cell. This process includes the release of a chemical transmitter substance at the base of the hair cells that controls the discharge rate of the nerve fiber (see illustration).

Schematic illustration of the excitation in hair cells

The frequency selectivity of the basilar membrane provides the central nervous system with information about the frequency or spectrum of a sound, because each auditory nerve fiber is “tuned” to a specific frequency. The frequency of a sound is also represented in the time pattern of the neural code, at least for frequencies up to 5 kHz. Thus, the frequency or spectrum of a sound can be coded for place and time in the neural activity in the auditory nervous system. See Audiometry

Auditory nervous system

The ascending auditory nervous system consists of a complex chain of clusters of nerve cells (nuclei), connected by nerve fibers (nerve tracts). The chain of nuclei relays and transforms auditory information from the periphery of the auditory system, the ear, to the central structures, or auditory cortex, which is believed to be associated with the ability to interpret different sounds. Neurons in the entire auditory nervous system are, in general, organized anatomically according to the frequency of a tone to which they respond best, which suggests a tonotopical organization in the auditory nervous system and underscores the importance of representations of frequency in that system. However, when more complex sounds were used to study the auditory system, qualities of sounds other than frequency or spectrum were found to be represented differently in different neurons in the ascending auditory pathway, with more complex representation in the more centrally located nuclei. Thus, the response patterns of the cells in each division of the cochlear nucleus are different, which indicates that extensive signal processing is taking place. Although the details of that processing remain to be determined, the cells appear to sort the information and then relay different aspects of it through different channels to more centrally located parts of the ascending auditory pathway. As a result, some neurons seem to respond only if more than one sound is presented at the same time, others respond best if the frequency or intensity of a sound changes rapidly, and so on.

Another important feature of the ascending auditory pathway is the ability of particular neurons to signal the direction of sound origination, which is based on the physical differences in the sound reaching the two ears. Certain centers in the ascending auditory pathway seem to have the ability to compute the direction to the sound source on the basis of such differences in the sounds that reach the ears.

Knowledge of the descending auditory pathway is limited to the fact that the most peripheral portion can control the sensitivity of the hair cells.

Hearing (vertebrate)

The ability to perceive sound arriving from distant vibrating sources through the environmental medium (such as air, water, or ground). The primary function of hearing is to detect the presence, identity, location, and activity of distant sound sources. Sound detection is accomplished using structures that collect sound from the environment (outer ears), transmit sound efficiently to the inner ears (via middle ears), transform mechanical motion to electrical and chemical processes in the inner ears (hair cells), and then transmit the coded information to various specialized areas within the brain. These processes lead to perception and other behaviors appropriate to sound sources, and probably arose early in vertebrate evolution.

Sound is gathered from the environment by structures that are variable among species. In many fishes, sound pressure reaching the swim bladder or another gas-filled chamber in the abdomen or head causes fluctuations in volume that reach the inner ears as movements. In addition, the vibration of water particles that normally accompany underwater sound reaches the inner ears to cause direct, inertial stimulation. In land animals, sound causes motion of the tympanic membrane (eardrum). In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, a single bone (the columella) transmits tympanic membrane motion to the inner ears. In mammals, there are three interlinked bones (malleus, incus, and stapes). Mammals that live underground may detect ground-borne sound via bone conduction. In whales and other sea mammals, sound reaches the inner ears via tissue and bone conduction.

The inner ears of all vertebrates contain hair-cell mechanoreceptors that transform motion of their cilia to electrochemical events resulting in action potentials in cells of the eighth cranial nerve. Patterns of action potentials reaching the brain represent sound wave features in all vertebrates. All vertebrates have an analogous set of auditory brain centers. See Ear (vertebrate)

Experiments show that vertebrates have more commonalities than differences in their sense of hearing. The major difference between species is in the frequency range of hearing, from below 1 Hz to over 100,000 Hz. In other fundamental hearing functions (such as best sensitivity, sound intensity and frequency discrimination acuity, time and frequency analysis, and source localization), vertebrates have much in common. All detect sound within a restricted frequency range. All species are able to detect sounds in the presence of interfering sounds (noise), discriminate between different sound features, and locate the sources of sound with varying degrees of accuracy.

The sensitivity range is similar among all groups, with some species in all groups having a best sensitivity in the region of -20 to 0 dB. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds hear best between 100 and 5000 Hz. Only mammals hear at frequencies above 10,000 Hz. Humans and elephants have the poorest high-frequency hearing.

Hearing

a function of man and animals that enables them to perceive sounds. It is effected by mechanical receptors and nerves that constitute the auditory system. In man, sounds produce an acoustic sensation that reflects the parameters of the sound signals. For example, the intensity or frequency of acoustic vibrations is perceived as loudness or pitch.

The nature of hearing varies greatly among animal species according to their evolutionary level, habitat, and those features of sound signals that are of biological significance for each species. Insects were the first animals to develop an auditory system. Such a system exists in all vertebrates and is most fully developed in mammals, whose perception of sounds results from a systematic analysis of information received in the auditory system.

As sound waves pass through the external auditory meatus (external ear), they cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate. The vibrations are transmitted through the connected ossicles in the middle ear to the liquid mediums—the perilymph and endolymph—of the inner ear. The resulting hydromechanical vibrations cause the cochlear membrane (the basilar membrane with surface receptors) to vibrate. Owing to the lengthwise gradient of the mechanical properties of the basilar membrane, vibrations of maximum amplitude occur at the base of the cochlea with high frequencies of stimulation, and at the cochlea’s apex with low frequencies.

The organ of Corti transforms this mechanical energy into excitation of the receptors. This excitation in turn stimulates the fibers of the acoustic nerve. The action potential thus produced is transmitted to the central auditory system. Sounds may be perceived both by air conduction and by bone conduction, that is, by means of the bones of the skull.

Hearing may be tested by examining the auditory system as a whole with psychoacoustic methods, which measure sound perception by articulation response and by observing the body’s motor or autonomic reactions. Hearing may also be tested by examining the individual elements of the auditory system. This is done by investigating the bioelectric potentials of the receptors and nerves of the auditory system and by investigating the transmissive activity of this system’s mechanical formations.

When hearing is examined by psychoacoustic methods (pure tones are generally used as stimuli), the sensitivity of hearing is evaluated from the absolute threshold of audibility, which is the minimum sound pressure in decibels (dB) that can be heard by the subject. The range of perceived frequencies extends in an audibility curve, which indicates the relationship between the absolute threshold of audibility and the tone frequency in hertz (Hz) or kilohertz(kHz).

Man perceives frequencies from 10–20 Hz to approximately 20 kHz. Frequencies lower than 10 Hz are not perceived as continuous sound. There is evidence that frequencies higher than 20 kHz can be perceived if sound is conducted through the bones of the skull. The lowest threshold of audibility in man is at frequencies of 1–3 kHz, a threshold intensity of sound of about 2 × 10^-5 newtons/m/²). Sounds of very high intensity cause pain whose threshold is about 140 dB above the 2 × 10^-5 newtons/m² level. In some animals, the range of frequencies perceived differs significantly from that in man. For example, 50–100 Hz to 3–5 kHz in fishes and 100 Hz to 200 kHz in dolphins.

Auditory discrimination is measured by differential thresholds, which specify the minimum perceptible change in a parameter of sound. In man, within an average range of sound intensities and frequencies, the differential threshold for intensity is 0.3–0.7 dB and the threshold for frequency is 2–8 Hz. The intensification of a sound increases the ability to discriminate (the differential threshold becomes lower). The ability to discriminate between sounds may also be manifested in the perception of speech signals and of tonal intervals in music. The ability to specify the absolute pitch of musical sounds is termed absolute pitch.

Over a period of time, the auditory system can accumulate information about sound signals. This ability is manifested by a lowering of the thresholds of audibility and of the differential thresholds for intensity and frequency when there is an increase (to certain critical limits) in the duration of the sound signals. The perception of sounds may decrease to the point of complete disappearance in the presence of other sounds, a phenomenon known as masking. Hearing sensitivity is impaired by prolonged exposure to loud sounds.

Hearing also identifies the location of a sound source. This is generally effected through the interaction of the two symmetrical halves of the auditory system, an interaction known as the binaural effect. The main parameters of sound permitting spatial localization when the sound source shifts from the midline of the head are the sound signals’ interaural differences in terms of the moment they are perceived and of their intensity. The differences between their intensities results from the head’s shadow effect. Bats, dolphins, and certain birds have a special type of hearing, echolocation, which enables them to determine the location, shape, size, and physical composition of objects by means of sounds emitted by the animals themselves and then reflected back from the objects.

Current theories of hearing deal with the auditory system’s detection and discrimination of sounds. For example, frequency analysis in hearing is viewed as the result of the spectral decomposition of a signal along the frequency axis of the cochlear membrane—a concept formulated by H. L. F. von Helm-holtz in the 19th century. According to the place theory, this process is followed by the excitation of groups of neurons in the central part of the auditory system. The place theory was supplemented by the concept of time-and-frequency analysis, which substantiates the analysis of the periodicity of signals. Thus, the process of hearing effects both a spectral and a temporal analysis of frequency.

REFERENCES

Zwicker, E., and R. Fel’dkeller. Ukho kak priemnik informatsii. Moscow, 1971. (Translated from German.)
Fiziologiia sensornykh sistem, part 2. Leningrad, 1972. Chapters 4–13.
Somjen, G. Kodirovanie sensornoi informatsii v nervnoi sisteme mlekopilaiushchikh. Moscow, 1975. (Translated from English.)
Békésy, G. von. Experiments in Hearing. New York-Toronto, 1960.
Basic Mechanisms in Hearing. Edited by A. R. Møller. London-New York, 1973.
Foundations of Modern Auditory Theory, vols. 1–2. New York-London, 1970–72.

IA. A. AL’TMAN

hearing

[′hir·iŋ] (physiology) The general perceptual behavior and the specific responses made in relation to sound stimuli.

hearing

1. the faculty or sense by which sound is perceived 2. the range within which sound can be heard; earshot 3. the investigation of a matter by a court of law, esp the preliminary inquiry into an indictable crime by magistrates 4. a formal or official trial of an action or lawsuit

hearing

hear·ing

hearing

hear•ing

Hearing

hearing

hearing

hear

hearing

hearing

hearing things

in hearing distance

within hearing distance

a fair hearing

hard of hearing

hear of (someone or something)

hear (one) loud and clear

hear word (from someone or something)

hear (something) through

hearing-impaired

hard of hearing

hearing impaired

hard of hearing

a fair ˈhearing

hard of ˈhearing

in/within (somebody’s) ˈhearing

hard of hearing

hearing

hearing:

Hearing (human)

Role of the ear

Auditory nervous system

Hearing (vertebrate)

Hearing

REFERENCES

hearing

hearing

hearing

Hearing

Cross-references

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Synonyms for hearing

noun sense of hearing

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noun inquiry

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noun chance to speak

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noun earshot

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Synonyms for hearing

noun the sense by which sound is perceived

Synonyms

noun range of audibility

Synonyms

noun a chance to be heard

Synonyms

noun the examination and deciding upon evidence, charges, and claims in court

Synonyms

Synonyms for hearing

noun (law) a proceeding (usually by a court) where evidence is taken for the purpose of determining an issue of fact and reaching a decision based on that evidence

Related Words

noun an opportunity to state your case and be heard

Synonyms

Related Words

noun the range within which a voice can be heard

Synonyms

Related Words

noun the act of hearing attentively

Synonyms

Related Words

noun a session (of a committee or grand jury) in which witnesses are called and testimony is taken

Related Words

noun the ability to hear

Synonyms