Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic

The Uzbek SSR was formed on Oct. 27, 1924. Located in the central and northern parts of Middle Asia, it borders the Kazakh SSR on the north and northwest, the Turkmen SSR on the southwest, the Tadzhik SSR on the southeast, the Kirghiz SSR on the northeast, and Afghanistan on the south. Part of the northwestern boundry is formed by the Aral Sea. Uzbekistan is fifth in the USSR in terms of area (after the RSFSR, Kazakh SSR, Ukrainian SSR, and Turkmen SSR) and fourth in terms of population (after the RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, and Kazakh SSR). Its area is 447,400 sq km, and the population is 14.1 million (Jan. 1, 1976). The capital is the city of Tashkent.

Uzbekistan comprises one autonomous republic and 11 oblasts. The republic is divided into 134 raions and has 76 cities and 86 urban-type settlements (see Table 1).

The Uzbek SSR is a socialist state of the whole people, expressing the will and interests of the workers, dehqans (peasants), and intelligentsia, the working people of all nationalities; a Union soviet socialist republic. Its present constitution was ratified on Apr. 19, 1978, by the Extraordinary Sixth Session of the Ninth Convocation of the Supreme Soviet of the Uzbek SSR. The highest state body is the unicameral Supreme Soviet of the Uzbek SSR, composed of 510 deputies elected for five-year terms by equally populated electorates. Between sessions of the Supreme Soviet, the highest state body is the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Uzbek SSR. The Supreme Soviet adopts the laws of the Uzbek SSR and names the Council of Ministers—the government’s executive branch. The bodies of local government in the oblasts, raions, cities, city districts, settlements, kishlaks (hamlets), and auls (villages) are the soviets of people’s deputies, which are elected by the population for 2½ year terms. The Uzbek SSR is represented by 32 deputies in the Soviet of Nationalities of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The Kara-Kalpak ASSR, which is a part of the Uzbek SSR, is represented separately in the Soviet of Nationalities by 11 deputies.

Uzbekistan’s highest judicial body is the Supreme Court, elected by the republic’s Supreme Soviet for a five-year term; it includes two judicial collegiums (handling civil and criminal cases), a plenum, and a presidium. The procurator of the Uzbek SSR is appointed by the procurator general of the USSR for a five-year term.

Most of Uzbekistan lies between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya. Approximately four-fifths of the territory of the republic is occupied by plains, primarily the Turan Lowland. Mountains are encountered only in the eastern extremity of the republic, where they form part of the Tien-Shan and Gissar-Alai systems.

Topography. Uzbekistan can be divided into a region of plains and a region of foothills and mountains. The former includes the Ustiurt Plateau, the delta plain of the Amu Darya, and the Kyzylkum Desert. The Ustiurt Plateau, an undulating structural plateau with predominant elevations of 200–250 m, is sharply set off from the adjoining plains by scarps. The delta plain of the Amu Darya encompasses the territory along the river’s lower course, from the Tiuiamuiun Gorge in the south to the Aral Sea in the north. The terrain here is flat (elevations to 100 m), with occasional degraded uplands (Kubetau, Mangyr, Tuzkyr). The plain is transected from the southeast to the northwest by ancient channels of the Amu Darya that carried the river’s water to the Saryk-amysh Lakes.

The Kyzylkum Desert is an elevated stratified plain with absolute elevations ranging from 100 m in the northwest to 200–300 m in the southeast. The mountains in Kyzylkum, among them the Bukantau (elevations to 764 m), Tamdytau (922 m), and Kul’-dzhuktau (785 m), have rocky slopes and are strongly dissected by dry erosional valleys. Accumulations of proluvium lie at the bottom of the slopes. Closed depressions and basins are also encountered, the largest of which—Mynbulak (12 m below sea level), Aiakagytma, and Karakata—have lengths of 40–50 km. The mountains are separated by sandy expanses having characteristic eolian landforms.

The other region of the republic, the region of foothills and mountains, includes ranges and intermontane basins of the Tien-Shan and Gissar-Alai systems. Elevations reach 4,000 m and more (Twenty-second Congress of the CPSU Peak, 4,643 m, in the Gissar Range; Mount Beshtor, 4,299 m, in the Pskem Range). The ranges of the Western Tien-Shan in the extreme northeast of Uzbekistan are the Karzhantau, Ugam, Pskem,

Chatkal, and Kurama. The Fergana Basin and the Tashkent-Golodnaia Steppe piedmont plain are separated from these ranges by the Turkestan Range (Gissar-Alai), by the Turkestan’s western projection—the Mal’guzar Range—and by the Mal’gu-zar’s extension—the Nuratau Range. Further south is the Sanzar-Nuratau basin, which is separated from the Samarkand basin to its south by the Aktau, Karatau, and other mountains. The Kashkadar’ia and Surkhandar’ia basins are located in the extreme south of the republic and are separated from each other by the Gissar Range and the Baisuntau mountains; the Surkhandar’ia basin is bounded on the east by the Babatag Range, which stretches along the southeastern border of Uzbekistan.

Geological structure and minerals. Geologically, the territory of Uzbekistan includes Epihercynian mountain structures of the Tien-Shan (middle and southern Tien-Shan) and the Turan Epihercynian Platform. The geosynclinal development of this territory was basically completed by the end of the Paleozoic; subsequently, a cratonic condition was achieved. The contemporary high-mountain terrain of eastern Uzbekistan derives from the intense mountain-building tectonic movements of the late Tertiary (Neogene) and Quaternay periods, movements that have continued up to the present.

Fold complexes of geosynclines and median masses can be distinguished in the Hercynian structures. The geosynclinal complexes of the middle Tien-Shan (Maidantala, Pskem, and Ugam ranges) are composed of red beds and carbonaceous rocks of the Devonian and Carboniferous periods bent into lineaments striking to the northeast; the complexes also contain magamatic formations (granodiorite granites of the Carboniferous; alaskites, syenodiorites, and monozonites of the Permian). The fold systems of the median masses (Karzhantau mountains, Kurama Range, Bukantau and Severnyi Tamdytau mountains) include su-baerial volcanogenic rocks of the Carboniferous and Permian, carbonates of the Devonian–Lower Carboniferous, and numerous granodiorite intrusions of the Middle Carboniferous and sye-nodiorite intrusions of the Upper Carboniferous-Permian; these rocks form large brachyfolds and volcano-tectonic structures. The geosynclinal fold complexes of the southern Tien-Shan (Zer-avshan, Turkestan, Nuratau, and Kul’dzhuktau ranges; Iuzhnyi Tamdytau, Auminzatau, and Sultanuizdag mountains) include carbonaceous rocks of the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous, flysch of the Middle Carboniferous, molasse of the Permian, and intrusions of granites, granodiorites, and syenites of the Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian. In the west, the Hercynian folds of the southern Tien-Shan divide into two branches: the northern branch assumes a meridional strike, perhaps joining with the Hercynides of the Urals; the southern branch, which is sublatitu-dinal, probably links up with the Hercynides of the Donbas.

The structure of the intermontane basins (Fergana, Angren, and Pritashkentskaia) includes Mesozoic-Cenozoic cratonic formations (sandy-argillaceous, carboniferous, and saliferous formations; red beds; molasse). High seismicity is characteristic of many areas of the eastern (mountainous) portion of Uzbekistan.

The Turan Platform includes the Ustiurt Plateau, the Bukhara-Khiva and Surkhandar’ia depressions, and the Central Kyzylkum Uplift, all delimited by abyssal fractures. The basement of the platform is composed of Precambrian schists, and the sedimentary mantle is composed mainly of terrigenous, carbonaceous, and saliferous deposits (of the Carboniferous-Quaternary). Volcanogenic sedimentary deposits and deposits of flysch and molasse of the Carboniferous, together with intrusions of granitoids, occur in the superimposed troughs formed along the abyssal fracture of the southern Tien-Shan. Hercynides of the southern Tien-Shan form the basement of the Central Kyzylkum Uplift. The thin sedimentary mantle here is made up of terrigenous carbonaceous deposits of the Cretaceous and Paleogene.

Uzbekistan is rich in minerals. Deposits of bismuth ores are associated with magmatic formations in the middle Tien-Shan (Ustarasaiskoe); porphyry copper is associated with syenodiorites (Almalyk), complex ores are associated with carbonaceous rocks (Kurgashinkan, Uchkulach), and gold ores, with volcanogenic rocks (Guzaksai, Kochbulak, and Kaul’dy). The Ingichka, Koitash, and Ucha deposits of tungsten are associated with the granitoids of the southern Tien-Shan. Oil is extracted in the Fergana Basin from strata of the Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene, and Neogene (Iuzhnyi Akamyshik, Andizhan, Palvak-tash), and lignite is mined in the Angren basin. The Precambrian formations of the Central Kyzylkum Uplift (Muryntau, Kokpa-tas) contain deposits of gold, and marble is found in Carboniferous deposits (Amankutan, Gazgan). There are large deposits of rock salt and potassium salts (Tiubegan), anthracite (Shargun’), and pyritiferous complex ores (Khandizinskoe) in the superimposed troughs of the Turan Platform. Large reservoirs of gas are concentrated in the Bukhara-Khiva depression (Gazli, Dzhar-kak, Karaulbazar-Saryktash, Urtabulak) and on the Ustiurt Plateau (Shakhpakhty).

Uzbekistan also has commercial deposits of nonmetals, including fluorspar, feldspar, graphite, ozokerite, sulfur, quartz, limestone, gypsum, building stone, bentonites, and such semiprecious stones as turquoise, garnet, listvenite, onyx, jasper, and rhodonite. The numerous thermal springs in the republic (Tashkent, Chartak) are used in balneotherapy. There are also large artesian basins (Fergana, Karshi).

Climate. Uzbekistan experiences such climatic features of continental subtropical regions as extended, dry, torrid summers, cool, moist falls, and mild winters with little snow. On the plains and in the low foothill regions, winters last from ½ to two months in the extreme south to five months in the extreme north (Ustiurt Plateau). The average January temperature is approximately –8°C (Churuk weather station on the Ustiurt Plateau); the average is 2.8°C in Termez and 3.6”C in Sherabad, both of which are in the extreme south. The lowest temperature in winter is –37°C (Churuk). The average July temperature approaches 26°C in the northern regions and exceeds 30°C in the south; at elevations of 3,000 m, the July average is approximately 10°C, in places exceeding 15°C–16°C. The maximum temperature on the plains and in the foothill regions is 42°C. During the summer, the daytime temperature of the soil surface reaches 60°C, climbing to 70°C in the deserts.

The plains receive the least amount of precipitation, only 80–90 mm a year. To the east and south, the quantity of precipitation increases with elevation; the increase is at first slow, but as the mountains are approached it becomes more rapid. In places, the yearly total in the mountains exceeds 890–1,000 mm. More than 70 percent of the precipitation falls in winter (as rain and snow) and spring. A snow cover forms nearly every year, but on the plains and in the foothills it lasts only a few days. Its thickness varies from several cm in the west (plains and foothills) to 60–80 cm in the east (foothills and moutains); in some mountainous regions it exceeds 100 cm. In winter, the prevailing winds on the plains are northeasterly, easterly, and southeasterly; in summer, northwesterly, northerly, and northeasterly winds predominate. Mountain and valley winds and katabatic winds arise in the mountains.

Glaciation. There are small glaciers in Uzbekistan on the upper course of the Kashkadar’ia (Severtsova, Batyrbai) and in the drainage basin of the Pskem River (47 glaciers). The glaciers on the upper Naryn and Karadar’ia rivers (headstreams of the Syr Daria), the numerous glaciers of the Alai and Turkestan ranges, and the thick glaciers of the Pamirs provide much of the water for Uzbekistan’s rivers.

Rivers and lakes. The distribution of rivers in Uzbekistan is extremely uneven. The region of plains has few rivers. Debouching onto the plains, the rivers lose their waters to irrigation, seepage, and evaporation; gradually drying up, they often terminate in alluvial deposits. The mountains are drained by a well-developed network of streams. The total capacity of the streams is 7.1 million kilowatts (kW), and the potential exists to produce 107 billion kilowatt-hours (kW-hr) annually.

All of the rivers in Uzbekistan are part of the drainage basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya. Most of the rivers are fed by snow and glaciers, with maximum discharge in June. Each year, the drainage basin of the Amu Darya delivers 79 cu km of water to the plains, a figure representing one-half of the total discharge from the mountainous region of Middle Asia. Of this amount, 6 cu km (8 percent of the total discharge from the drainage basin of the Amu Darya) comes from the mountainous region of Uzbekistan. The most important river of Uzbekistan is the Syr Darya. Its annual discharge is 38 cu km, of which approximately 4 cu km (10 percent) comes from sources within Uzbekistan. Most of the tributaries of the Syr Darya do not actually reach the river because they lose their water to irrigation.

Lakes are located primarily in the valleys and deltas of the larger rivers and along the periphery of irrigated oases. The largest lake is the Aral Sea. Lakes created as reservoirs include the Kattakurgan, Kairakkum, Chardara, Kuiumazar, Kasansai, Ti-uiabuguz (“Tashkent Sea”), and Charvak.

Soils. Sandy soils predominate in the Kyzylkum Desert. In the interior, on the alluvial cones and degraded landmasses, there are gray-brown soils, with takyrs and takyr soils in the basins. The sierozems found in the foothills and low mountains include light sierozems (from 250 to 400 m), conventional sierozems (400–700 m), and dark sierozems (700–1,200 m). Higher up, on mountains of medium height (1,200–2,800 m), there are cinnamon-colored and brown mountain-forest soils, and at elevations greater than 2,800 m, there are light brown meadow-steppe soils. Among these automorphic soils, hydromorphic soils, such as solonchaks, meadow soils, meadow-bog soils, and bog soils, are encountered in poorly drained piedmont plains and river valleys, as are such semihydromorhic soils (with certain attributes of automorphic and hydromorphic soils) as sierozem-meadow and desert-meadow soils. Irrigated soils make up a distinct type.

Flora. The desert landscapes of Uzbekistan have vegetative groupings dominated by xerophytic subshrubs (primarily wormwood and saltwort), widely spaced groupings of woody Chenopo-diaceae (chiefly saxaul), and certain woody or shrubby psammo-phytic legumes and plants of the family Polygonaceae. In areas where the desert surface is strewn with stones or gypsum, the principal plants are the subshrub Anabasis salsa, wormwood and saltwort subshrubs, the saxaul shrub, prickly bindweed shrubs, and shrubs of the genus Atraphaxis. On the sandy expanses of desert, plants include the sand sedge, the plant Haloxylon persicum, various shrubs of the family Polygonaceae, saltwort shrubs and shrubs of the genus Astragalus, sand grasses of the genus Aristida, and saltwort annuals. The plant Haloxylon aphyllum and thickets of tamarisk are typical of areas of the desert having solonchak or clay soil.

The river valleys of Uzbekistan contain gallery forests composed of trees (poplar, willow, Elaeagnus), shrubs (tamarisk, Lycium, Halymodendron halodendron), and herbs (Phragmites, Erianthus, Calamagrostis, Alhagi, licorice, wild sugarcane). The region of foothills in the republic can be broken down on the basis of elevation into zones encompassing the piedmont plain (from 300 to 600 m), the law foothills (600–900 m), and the high foothills (900–1,200 m). Vegetation in the piedmont plain typically includes the herbs Poa bulbosa and narrow-leaved sedge (Carex pachystylis). In addition, there are many ephemerals of the families Cruciferae, Leguminosae, Poaceae, Boraginaceae, Compositae, Umbelliferae, and Labiatae. In the zone of low foothills, vegetation also includes perennial thick-stemmed herbs that grow for much of the year. Among the plants frequently encountered are carrack (a prickly variety of resin important for winter forage), herbs of the genus Psoralea (nectariferous), Phlomis, plants of the genus Eremurus, Ferula caratsiensis, and plants of the genus Crambe. The zone of high foothills comprises a dry steppe made up of forbs, among which are the large downy species of the genus Agropyron and the bulbous species of the genus Hordeum. The steppe also includes such large dicotyledons as the large species of Inula and the achlamydeous species of the genus Althaea. Vegetation on areas where the soil is gravelly includes prickly shrubs of the genus Amygdalus, shrubs of the genus Cerasus, and shrubs of the genus Atraphaxis.

Poplars and willows grow in the river valleys. In the zone encompassing forests, meadows, and steppes at elevations of 1,200–1,800 m, vegetation is for the most part xerophytic; at elevations of 1,800–2,500 m, it consists of mesophytic juniper bushes. There are small apple and nut groves in some areas. A variety of cherry plum (Prunus divaricata) grows at the base of the slopes, and in the river valleys there are poplar and willow trees. Birches grow in the Western Tien-Shan. At elevations of 2,500–2,700 m, there are fescue steppes; here, the tree Juniperus turkestanica occurs as a prostrate shrub. Higher up, to elevations of 3,000 m, there are Lagotis meadows and highland xerophytes (Acantholimon, viper’s-grass, Tragacantha). In all, forests cover 2.07 percent of the republic’s territory.

Fauna. The desert plains of Uzbekistan abound in reptiles. In the sandy expanses of the deserts, there are geckos (scincoid [Teratoscincus scincus] and comb-toed [Crossobamon evers-manni]), the lizards Phrynocephalus mystaceus and Phrynocephalus interscapularis, Eremias grammica, and the sand boa Eryx miliaris. The areas where the desert is covered by stones or clay soil are home to the terrestrial lizard Agama sanguinolenta, var-anids, testudinates, and vipers of the genus Echis.

The sandy areas are also inhabited by a large number of mammals. Rodents include the feather-footed jerboa, the jird Meriones meridianas, the gerbil Rhombomys opimus, and the long-clawed ground squirrel (Spermophilopsis leptodactylus). Predators are represented by the sand cat (Felis margarita). Desert areas with hard compacted soils are home to the gerbil Meriones erythourus, dipodids (Allactaga elater, Allactaga severtzovi), the Afghan vole (Microtus afghanos bucharensis), and the suslik Citellus fluvus.

Typical birds of the sandy deserts include Pander’s ground jay, the brown-necked raven, the desert great gray shrike (Lanius excubitor pallidirostris), the desert wheatear, and Hippolais. There are many birds in the gallery forests, among them pheasants, night herons, ravens, and the desert warbler (Sylvia nana). Mammals here include the short-tailed bandicoot rat (except in the basin of the Syr Darya), jungle cat, golden jackal, and wild boar. Birds predominate in the oases, where the Senegalese turtledove and sparrows, swallows, the common swift, and mynas are encountered. Larks and the tawny pipit (Anthus campestris) inhabit the foothills; mountains of medium height are inhabited by the bunting Emberiza bruniceps and skylark, and high mountains, by the horned lark and water pipit. Typical mammals of the mountain steppes and meadows are the ground squirrel Citellus relictus and marmots (long-tailed bobac, Talas bobac).

Birds inhabiting the deciduous mountain forests include the rufous turtledove, tawny owl, and Dendropos leucopterus; mammals here include the honey badger, Turkestan rat, the mouse Mus sylvaticus, and rodents of the family Gliridae. Birds of the juniper forests include the white-winged goosebeak and the finches Carpodacus rhodochlamys and Carpodacus grandis. Among the mammals are the cape hare and the vole Microtus carruthersi. The true fox, wolves, golden eagle, eagle owl, and snakes of the genus Ancistrodon inhabit all areas, from the deserts to the high mountains.

Carp, rudd, sheatfish, and fish of the genus Barbus are found in ponds and reservoirs, while Old World minnows, the Turkestan cat Glyptosternum reticulatum, osmans (Chirchik basin), and trout (basin of the Syr Darya) are found in streams and rivers in the mountains. There are three endemic species of the genus Pseudoscaphirhynchus in the Syr Darya and Amu Darya.

Preserves. There are a number of preserves in Uzbekistan. Zaamin, Chatkal, Nuratau, and Kyzylsu are mountain-forest preserves. The Aral-Paigambar, Kyzylkum, Karakul’, Zeravshan, and Badai-Tugai preserves are located in the plains. In addition, nine sanctuaries have been established.

Natural regions. The plains and foothill-mountain sections are clearly distinguishable in Uzbekistan. There are a number of regions within these two sections. The Ustiurt region is dominated by landforms typical of stony (gypsum) deserts. Here, on gray-brown soil, the subshrub Anabasis salsa forms groupings with the shrub Salsola arbusculo and with wormwood shrubs; it also occurs by itself. The Lower Amu Darya region is typified by a combination of clay-delta desert landforms with clusters of reedlike grasses of the genera Phragmites and Tamarix and with the sub-shrub Anabasis salsa and wormwoods on hydromorphic and semihydromorphic soils. The Kyzylkum region has landscapes typical of sandy deserts; the main plant is the Haloxylon persicum. This region also has low mountains, at the base of which there are proluvial plains (sandy loam, rock debris) with wormwood and wormwood-saltwort associations. The Lower Zeravshan region has sandy desert landforms. Here, the plant Haloxylon persicum, plants of the genus Calligonum, and Astragolus villofissimus occur with Salsola rígida and S. arbúsculo on takyr-like soils. There are also solonchak soils. The Surkhandar’ia region has landscapes encompassing all elevations, from the desert zone to the zone of glaciers and permanent snow. The Kashkadar’ia region is typified by a combination of foothill, medium-mountain, and high-mountain belts. The Middle Zeravshan region has well-developed landscapes of the foothill, desert-steppe, and dry steppe belts. There are also mountains of medium height. In the Golodnaia Steppe, most of the landscapes are of the foothill and medium-mountain type, the latter being more sharply expressed than in the Middle Zeravshan region. The Chirchik-Angren region has foothill, medium-mountain, and high-mountain landscapes. Glaciers and areas of permanent snow figure prominently in the high mountains. The Fergana region has landscapes ranging from the desert type to the high-mountain (glaciers, permanent snow) type. Al! landscapes are at higher elevations than all the other foothill-mountain regions. The Fergana region also has large oases (Kokand, Margilan, Namangan).

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The largest part of the population (65.5 percent) is made up of Uzbeks (7,724,700; all data from 1970 census). The population also includes Kara-Kalpaks (230,300, of whom 217,500 live in the Kara-Kalpak ASSR), Russians (1,473,500), Tatars (573,700), Kazakhs (476,300), Tadzhiks (448,500), Koreans (147,500), Ukrainians (111,700), Kirghiz (110,700), Jews (102,900), Turkmens (71,000), Azerbaijanis (38,900), Armenians (34,200), Uighurs (23,900), and Bashkirs (20,800).

By 1976 the population of Uzbekistan was 3.2 times larger than in 1913 (see Table 2). Population growth has take place basically through natural increase, for which Uzbekistan’s figures are the second highest among the Union republics (27.3 persons per 1,000 residents in 1975), the Tadzhik SSR occupying first place. (The rate for the USSR as a whole is 8.8.)

The average population density is 31.5 per sq km (Jan. 1, 1976). The population is distributed very unevenly. Average density is five persons per sq km in the Kara-Kalpak ASSR, 8 per sq km in Bukhara Oblast, 34.2 in Kashkadar’ia Oblast, 214 in Tashkent Oblast, 224.4 in Fergana Oblast, and 299.9 in Andizhan Oblast. Density reaches 2,000 persons per sq km in certain suburban areas.

As of Jan. 1, 1976, men made up 49.1 percent of the population, and women 50.9 percent. More than 77 percent of the work force is employed in material production. In 1975, the number of industrial and nonindustrial workers reached 3,343,000 (756,000 in 1940), of whom 697,000 were employed in industry, 386,000 in construction, 582,000 in agriculture, 311,000 in transportation and communications, and 478,000 in education and culture. Women make up 42 percent of the work force.

The urban population has increased with industrialization (see Table 2). Of the 76 cities of Uzbekistan, 64 were formed during the years of Soviet power, including 44 since 1960. The major cities, with their populations (Jan. 1, 1976), are Tashkent (1,643,000), Samarkand (304,000), Andizhan (220,000), Namangan (217,000), Kokand (152,000), Bukhara (144,000), and Fergana (132,000). Among the new cities that have become major industrial centers are Chirchik, Angren, Almalyk, Bekabad, and Navoi.

Primitive communal system (to the mid-first millennium b.c.). Stone implements found in Fergana and Bukhara oblasts show that Uzbekistan was inhabited in the Lower Paleolithic. The skull and various bones of a Neanderthal boy uncovered in the cave Teshik-Tash date from the Mousterian culture. As is evidenced by finds in the cave Amir-Temir (near the city of Baisun), by the cave habitation sites of Aman-Kutan (near Samarkand) and Obirakhmat

and Kul’bulak (both near Tashkent), and by habitation sites in the Fergana Valley, the primitive inhabitants of what is now Uzbekistan lived in large groups and engaged primarily in hunting and gathering.

The transition to the Mesolithic in the region took place 12,000 to 15,000 years ago; the transition to the Neolithic took place at the beginning of the fifth millennium B.C. (seeKELTEMINAR CULTURE). The tribes inhabiting Uzbekistan began making copper implements at the end of the third millennium B.C. The first regular agricultural settlements (seeZAMAN-BABA and DAL’VERZIN SETTLEMENT) appeared during the Bronze Age, in the second and early first millennia B.C. The Taza-Bag-iab culture came to Uzbekistan in the second half of the second millennium B.C. During the late Bronze Age, the cultivation of land by means of artificial irrigation was carried on throughout almost all Uzbekistan; the main crops were wheat, barley, and millet. Sheep predominated among the domestic animals, which also included cattle and horses. Large tribal associations were formed, and intertribal exchange gradually developed. By the end of the Bronze Age, early class relations had appeared among the tribes of Middle Asia.

Slaveholding system (mid-first millennium b.c. to the fifth century A.D.). The Uzbek nationality is descended from tribes and peoples that inhabited Middle Asia for many centuries and were linked not only politically and economically, but ethnically as well. An advanced material culture developed from the ancient Sogdian-Khwarazmian civilization.

The economic development of the first states of Middle Asia, which included what is now Uzbekistan, depended on irrigation agriculture. The irrigation systems in the Amu Darya, Syr Darya, and Zeravshan river basins were larger than those of the late Middle Ages; they could have been constructed only by large agricultural communes having a centralized government and a large slave labor force. In the steppe and mountain regions, livestock raising and horticulture became increasingly important. The development of livestock raising in several regions of Middle Asia forced a substantial part of the population to adopt a nomadic way of life. Improvements in tools and advances in metalworking fostered the growth of handicrafts and an expansion in exchange and trade.

The slaveholding states of Khwarazm, Bactria, Sogdiana, and the Parthian Empire emerged in Middle Asia in the first millennium B.C. Cities such as Maracanda (Samarkand) and Kireshata flourished. The Achaemenids established control over much of Middle Asia in the sixth century B.C. Between 329 and 327 B.C., during his campaign against Persia, Alexander the Great conquered Middle Asia. The local population waged an uninterrupted struggle against the invaders; the largest uprising was led by Spitamenes between 329 and 327 B.C. The Greco-Bactrian kingdom was established in Middle Asia in approximately 250 B.C. In the mid-second century B.C., the Tochari and other nomadic tribes of Middle Asia, supported by Khwarazm, Sogdiana, and Bactria, drove the Greco-Macedonian rulers out of Middle Asia. In the second half of the second century B.C. Fergana was an independent association of states.

During this period in Middle Asia handicraft production continued to progress, commodity-money relations expanded, and cities grew. Advances were made in field crop farming, horticulture, and viticulture. Rice, wheat, grapes, and alfalfa were cultivated in Fergana, and wine-making was developed. Middle Asia, including what is now Uzbekistan, formed part of the Kushana Kingdom from the end of the first century B.C. to the mid-fourth century A.D. In the mid-fifth century the Ephthalites established in Middle Asia a state in which there developed the preconditions for the emergence of feudal relations.

Feudal society (sixth to mid-19th centuries). The Ephthalite state broke up in the 560’s under pressure from the Turkic peoples, who in the mid-sixth century had created the Turkic Kaganate, a large state in which feudal relations were developing.

In Middle Asia (West Turkic Kaganate) the population consisted of settled land cultivators and nomadic stock raisers. Most of the land cultivators were kedivers, who were personally bound to the rich landowners, or dehqans. The popular masses repeatedly rebelled against the feudal aristocracy; of particular importance was the uprising led by Abrui in the Bukhara region in the 580’s. Cotton cultivation, sericulture, and the silk and cotton trade developed extensively in Middle Asia during this period. Gold, copper, iron, lead, silver, and other metals were mined, and local artisans fashioned them into coins, weapons, and domestic articles. The West Turkic Kaganate was a federation of Turkic tribes that fought among themselves. In the sixth and seventh centuries a new type of settlement arose in Middle Asia in response to the frequent wars and uprisings; these settlements consisted of fortified estate-castles of the aristocracy surrounded by cultivated land and fortified houses for the dehqans and merchants.

By the mid-eighth century the Arab Caliphate had conquered Middle Asia and forced it to accept Islam. The peoples of Middle Asia courageously resisted the conquerors. A major uprising in Sogdiana between 720 and 722 was followed by rebellions in the second half of the 720’s and between 734 and 737 in Sogdiana, Khorasan, and other regions. A mass uprising under the leadership of Abu Muslim took place between 747 and 750, bringing about the fall of the Umayyad dynasty and the rise of the Abbasids. An uprising led by Sumbad and Ishak erupted in 755, and the important Mukanna Uprising took place in 776. The movement was centered in Mavera-un-Nahr and was supported by nomadic Turkic tribes. The uprising of Abdul Hasib took place in 801 and 802, and the Rafi ibn Leis Uprising, an antifeudal rebellion against the Caliphate, broke out in 806 in Sogdiana. Objectively, the Arab conquest played a positive role in the development of the productive forces of Middle Asia. Cities grew, especially Samarkand, Binkent (Tashkent), Termez, and Bukhara. Trade, including caravan trade, and handicraft production expanded, and exchange between the urban and rural population and between farmers and nomads increased. The inclusion of Middle Asia in the Caliphate helped to overcome feudal fragmentation and furthered the development of economic and cultural ties with the peoples of Southwest Asia.

The Samanid state was formed in Middle Asia in the ninth century. Its most developed region consisted of what is now Uzbekistan, especially the Zeravshan River valley. Cities and various rural areas, such as Samarkand, Bukhara, Termez, and the Shash region, became major agricultural, trade, handicraft, and cultural centers. Samarkand became famous far beyond Middle Asia for the production of high-quality paper and glass. Khwarazm was an important economic region. Leather, fabrics, silk, wool, clothing, livestock, and other commodities were exported to the countries of Eastern Europe, to China, and elsewhere. The large landowners of Mavera-un-Nahr usually divided their land into small parcels, which they then leased to peasant sharecroppers who had little or no land of their own and, in addition, paid exorbitant taxes to the feudal rulers. The Samanid state was continually rocked by peasant rebellions.

The Uzbek nationality developed over a protracted period. Turkic tribes penetrated and settled in Sogdiana, Mavera-un-Nahr, and other regions between the sixth and ninth centuries. In some instances the Turkic elements were assimilated by the indigenous population. In other instances they became predominant: in the eighth century there were powerful Karluk elements in Fergana and Oghuz elements in Shash. At the same time, Sog-dian farmers who reached Semirech’e, which was populated mainly by Turkic nomads, gradually abandoned their own language and adopted that of the nomads.

In the late tenth century the Karakhanid state was formed in Semirech’e from various Turkic tribes, including the Karluks, Chigils, Argu, and Iagma. The rulers of the state, the bogra-khan Harun ibn Musa ibn Satuk and Nasr I, conquered Mavera-un-Nahr between 992 and 999; subsequently the Samanid state collapsed. The Karakhanid state, Khwarazm, and (south of the Amu Darya) the Ghaznavid state, replaced the Samanid state. In the late 12th century Khwarazm became more powerful and subjugated most of Middle Asia. The Turkic-speaking Uzbek nationality was essentially formed by the 11th or 12th century.

By the early 13th century, Muhammad II Ala’-al-Din, the shah of Khwarazm, had routed the Karakitai and annexed Middle Asia and southern Kazakhstan. The Mongol-Tatar forces of Genghis Khan invaded the shah’s possessions in 1219. The popular masses, notably the people of Khodzhent under the leadership of Timur Melik, tenaciously resisted the aggressors. Most of the feudal lords, however, submitted to the Mongol-Tatars without resistance, thereby avoiding much of the suffering endured by other strata of the population. By 1221 the Mongol-Tatars had conquered all of Middle Asia. In 1224 Genghis Khan handed control over this vast territory to his second son, Jagatai, but in actuality power was wielded by the Mongol vicegerent Mahmud Ialavach, a merchant of Khwarazm. The Mongol-Tatars ruled the conquered lands with the support of the feudal elite and the Muslim clergy. The people were oppressed by both the Mongol-Tatars and the local feudal lords. In 1238 a major uprising against the Mongols erupted in Bukhara under the leadership of Mahmud Tarabi, only to be brutally suppressed.

In the second half of the 14th century Tamerlane (1336–1405) established a powerful empire with Mavera-un-Nahr as its nucleus and Samarkand as its capital. Tamerlane’s aggressive policies placed a heavy burden on the peoples of Mavera-un-Nahr and other regions. Under Tamerlane feudal relations in Middle Asia attained their greatest development. A period of feudal disorder ensued after Tamerlane’s death, and his empire essentially divided into two amalgamations of feudal holdings. The first was in Khorasan; its capital was Herat, and it was ruled (1409–47) by Tamerlane’s son Shah Rukh. The other was in Mavera-un-Nahr; its capital was Samarkand, and it was ruled (1409–49) by Shah Rukh’s son Ulug Beg. Ulug Beg encouraged the development of handicrafts and trade; one of the outstanding scholars of the Middle Ages, he made major contributions to science and culture. His scientific work earned him the hatred of the Muslim clergy. After Ulug Beg’s death, his state disintegrated into independent, warring territories. Only nominal efforts to unify the state were undertaken by the Timurids Abu Said (ruled 1451–69) and Sultan Husayn (ruled 1469–1506).

The great Uzbek poet Alisher Navoi, who was the father of Uzbek classical literature, a renowned scholar and thinker, and a political figure, lived in Herat in the second half of the 15th century. His artistic work and progressive social activities had an enormous influence on the subsequent cultural development of the Uzbeks and other peoples of the medieval East.

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries Middle Asia was conquered by nomadic Uzbek tribes under Sheiban Khan (ruled 1451–1510) that had come from Dasht-i-Kipchak. In 1510 his troops were routed by the Iranian shah Ismail I, and Sheiban Khan was killed. The Sheibanids’ war against Ismail and the Ti-murid Baber was waged with varying success. Gradually, large groups of the nomadic conquerors adopted a settled mode of existence and took up the cultivation of the land. The settled population assimilated them at an increasing rate; the Uzbeks who had migrated from Dasht-i-Kipchak became part of the Turkic-speaking nationality that had formed in the 11th and 12th centuries, and they gave the nationality their name, “Uzbek.” The emergence of a new feudal aristocracy resulted in the gradual redistribution of the land. The Sheibanids sought to strengthen the country’s economy and to improve its irrigation system. A monetary reform was enacted at the beginning of the 16th century.

The development of feudal relations in the first half of the 16th century led to the collapse of the state created by Sheiban Khan. Khwarazm, Balkh, and other areas became principalities independent of Bukhara, which had been the capital of the Sheibanid state. The Khiva Khanate emerged. Abdullah-Khan II ibn-Iskan-der temporarily succeeded in uniting the country. In 1599 a new dynasty, the Ashtarkhanids, began ruling. In the 1740’s Bukhara was conquered by the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah. In 1753, Mu-hammed Rahim ascended the throne of the Bukhara Khanate; he was the first emir and the founder of the Mangyt dynasty, which was to rule until 1920. Foreign trade, especially with Russia, expanded in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries, and cities and commodity production continued to grow. Vicegerents, attempting to gain power, continually initiated internecine conflicts in the Khiva and Bukhara khanates. From 1826 to 1860 Bukhara was ruled by Nasrulla Khan, who united the khanate and established a stable central authority in the mid-19th century.

In the first quarter of the 19th century the Kokand Khanate, which had been formed in the early 18th century, ruled Tashkent, nearly all of the Syr Darya River basin, part of Semirech’e, and other areas. Russia and Kokand exchanged envoys in 1812 and 1813. In 1842 the Kokand Khanate was seized by the Bukhara Khanate, but a popular uprising against the emir’s rule, in which the local aristocracy was supported by Kipchak tribes, restored the independence of the Kokand Khanate in the same year. In 1847 a large popular uprising against Kokand’s rule in Tashkent led to Tashkent’s achieving relative independence. A number of popular uprisings in the Khiva Khanate broke out between the mid-18th and early 19th centuries as a result of widespread discontent over exorbitant taxes. The Middle Asian khanates were continually at war with one another throughout the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries; the khan of Kokand fought Bukhara on fifteen occasions over Ura-Tiube alone. The wars and constant internecine conflicts within the khanates, and the attendant devastation and pillaging, undermined economic and cultural life.

The intellectual life of the 19th-century Uzbek khanates was backward and conservative. Despite persecution by reactionary rulers and the clergy, however, a progressive national intelligentsia was born. The poets Ghazi, Makhmur, and Mukhammed Gul’khani flourished in Kokand at the beginning of the 19th century, the historian and poet Shir-Mukhammed Munis Khorezmi and his nephew Agakhi Mukhammad Riza in Khiva, and the poet Mirza Sadyk Munshi in Bukhara. The economic life of the khanates developed despite their feudal backwardness; irrigation systems were constructed and improved, agricultural production increased, and new cities arose.

In the 19th century Middle Asia became an arena for competition between Great Britain and Russia. Russia sought to establish and strengthen in every possible way its dilomatic and commercial relations with the khanates of Bukhara, Khiva, and Kokand; trade with Russia was highly profitable for Middle Asian merchants.

Unification with Russia; socioeconomic development of Uzbekistan in the second half of the 19th century. The tsarist government sought to control in Middle Asia sources of raw materials for Russian industry and areas for investment by the growing bourgeoisie. In addition, it wanted to keep Great Britain out of Middle Asia. Russian troops invaded Uzbekistan in the 1860’s. Initially, military operations were undertaken against the Kokand Khanate and the lands it had conquered. Russian forces entered Pishpek in the fall of 1862, took the fortress of Suzak in the summer of 1863, and captured the cities of Aulie-Ata and Turkestan in the spring of 1864. On Sept. 22,1864, Chimkent was taken by storm. On May 17, 1865, M. G. Cherniaev’s detachment captured Tashkent after a three-day assault. Bukhara’s troops were then routed as they moved toward Tashkent. In the autumn of 1866 Russian troops captured part of the Bukhara Khanate, including the cities of Ura-Tiube and Dzhizak and the fortress of Iangikurgan. The Kokand Khanate was now isolated from Bukhara.

In 1867 the Turkestan Governor-Generalship, with Tashkent as administrative center, was formed in the part of Turkestan occupied by tsarist troops; K. P. Kaufman was appointed the first governor-general. Under the peace treaty signed by Russia and Bukhara on June 23, 1868, territory containing the cities of Khodzhent, Ura-Tiube, Dzhizak, Kattakurgan, and Samarkand was ceded to Russia. Zeravshan Okrug of the Turkestan Governor-Generalship was formed from this territory. A peace treaty with the khan of Khiva, who acknowledged Russia’s protectorate, was signed on Aug. 12, 1873; a similar treaty with Bukhara was signed on Sept. 18, 1873. After the suppression of the Kokand Rebellion of 1873–76, the Kokand Khanate was abolished, and its territory became part of Fergana Oblast in the Turkestan Governor-Generalship. At the end of the 1880’s the territory of present-day Uzbekistan belonged partly to Syr Darya, Samarkand, and Fergana oblasts of the Turkestan Governor-Generalship and partly to the Khiva and Bukhara khanates.

Despite the reactionary policies of tsarism, Uzbekistan’s incorporation into Russia was historically progressive. Uzbekistan was drawn into the economic system of developing Russian capitalism; this new influence accelerated the economic development of the region and contributed to the emergence of an industrial proletariat and the birth of bourgeois relations. Uzbekistan was exposed to the influence of progressive Russian culture and science. The Uzbek people established contact with the Russian proletariat, the most revolutionary in the world; the working people of Uzbekistan were gradually drawn into active revolutionary struggle for national and social liberation.

The main task of tsarist economic policy in Uzbekistan was to develop cotton growing. Uzbekistan soon became one of the main suppliers of cotton to Russian industry. Beginning in 1884, American cotton, which was superior to the local variety, was sown in the region. Small peasant farms were the main producers of cotton. With the increased cultivation of cotton, commodity-money relations expanded and became more firmly entrenched in the countryside. The migration of Russian peasants to Syr Darya and Fergana oblasts began; in the process of resettlement, land was often forcibly siezed from the indigenous population. The Transcaspian (Middle Asian) Railroad was completed in 1899, the Orenburg-Tashkent Railroad was finished in 1905, and the Fergana and Bukhara railroads were constructed between 1910 and 1916.

In 1900, Turkestan had about 10,000 workers employed in 195 different industrial enterprises, as compared to 21 enterprises prior to 1880. Most of the Middle Asian proletariat was made up of railroad workers and workers in cotton-ginning and vegetable-oil mills. The majority of the factories and mills belonged to Russian capitalists. The colonial policies of the Russian government were designed to perpetuate the economic, political, and cultural backwardness of the local population.

The first protests by workers took place in the 1880’s and 1890’s and included disturbances at the Zauran-Koshturskii mine in 1885, a construction workers’ strike near Kokand in 1898, and disturbances among the industrial workers of Samarkand in the same year. The discontent of the peasants increased under the influence of the workers’ movement and as a result of intensified social and ethnic oppression. Their dissatisfaction found expression in spontaneous, uncoordinated clashes with the beys (seeBEY) and the local colonial administration. Peasant uprisings took place in Namangan and Andizhan districts in 1881, 1891, and 1895; the largest was the Andizhan Uprising of 1898.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries there were several conflicting ideological and sociopolitical currents of thought in Uzbekistan. These included the feudal-clerical current, which was the ideology of the powerful secular and clerical feudal lords; the bourgeois Jadidist current (seeJADIDISM), which was the ideology of the national bourgeoisie that had formed in Uzbekistan; the democratic current (represented by such figures as A. Donish, M. Alim, M. Mukimi, and Furkat), which defended the interests of the working people and supported friendship between the peoples of Middle Asia and Russia; and the Marxist-Leninist current, which was the ideology of the working class and was transmitted mainly by Social Democrats exiled from Central Russia.

Period of imperialism and bourgeois democratic revolutions in Russia (1900–17). Substantial mineral reserves were discovered in Uzbekistan at the beginning of the 20th century. The extraction of petroleum began in the Fergana Valley, and copper was mined in the areas of Naukat and Tarangutsai. Ozokerite and mineral salts were extracted. Beginning in the late 19th century, large textile firms opened agencies, offices, and warehouses in Uzbekistan for the sale of products and the purchase of cotton. The companies set artificially low prices for raw materials and high prices for manufactured goods. Only the initial processing of raw materials was carried out in Uzbekistan.

By 1913 cotton-ginning and vegetable-oil enterprises accounted for 50.7 percent of the entire industrial output. The sowing of cotton continually increased at the expense of grains; 33,918,000 poods (1 pood = 16.38 kg) of cotton were harvested in Fergana, Samarkand, and Syr Darya oblasts in 1915, as compared to 15,301,000 poods in 1907. In 1914 cotton made up 80 percent of Middle Asia’s exports to Russia. The development of cotton growing strengthened the ties between peasant farms and the marketplace and accelerated the stratification of the peasantry. Although the growth rates of capitalist enterprises, trading firms, and banks were comparatively high, bourgeois relations, especially in agriculture, barely developed in Turkestan Krai (seeTURKESTAN KRAI). Feudal relations were dominant in the Uzbek kishlak (hamlet). Islam provided the ideological basis for feudalism. The Muslim clergy played an important role in the economic and political life of Uzbekistan.

The first Social Democratic circles arose in Uzbekistan at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1904 the Social Democratic and Socialist Revolutionary Alliance was formed in Tashkent; in the following year, the group split into Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries (SR’s). The working people of Uzbekistan took part in the Revolution of 1905–07. By the fall of 1905, 15 workers’ and three soldiers’ Social Democratic circles existed in Tashkent. In 1905 and 1906 the newspaper Samarkand played a major role in propagating revolutionary ideas among the working people and soldiers; the Bolshevik M. V. Morozov acted as the paper’s editor. Social Democratic military-revolutionary organizations were established in Tashkent (Turkestan Social Democratic Military Committee), Samarkand,.and other cities.

On Oct. 14,1905, the employees of Turkestan’s railroads went on strike. They were joined by workers of industrial enterprises, and disturbances broke out among the soldiers of railroad battalions and the sailors of the Amu Darya Flotilla. On October 19 the tsarist authorities fired on a mass meeting of the working people of Tashkent. The funeral of the slain became a huge revolutionary demonstration. The strike caused an upsurge in the revolutionary movement in the army. The Bolsheviks of Tashkent, together with the SR’s, prepared a protest by the workers and soldiers. An uprising begun by the soldiers of the Tashkent Reserve Battalion in the early morning of Nov. 16, 1905, was suppressed. The reprisals against those who took part in the uprising brought about an intensification of the revolutionary movement throughout Turkestan, and the general strike erupted anew.

The first congress of employees of the Middle Asian Railroad, held Dec. 13–20, 1905, adopted a resolution demanding the establishment, by revolutionary means, of an eight-hour day by January 1906. The revolutionary struggle of the working people of Turkestan forced the tsarist government to reserve six seats for “native deputies” in the First and Second State Dumas. A state of “emergency protection” declared in Turkestan in September 1906 was retained until 1909. After the coup d’etat of June 3, 1907, an electoral law was enacted that deprived the indigenous population of Uzbekistan of suffrage and of representation in the State Duma. In 1910 the Third State Duma passed a law confiscating “surplus” lands from the native population of Turkestan. During the years of reaction, the growing national oppression in Uzbekistan led to increased nationalistic activity by the Jadidists. Despite the terrorist tactics of the government, the strike movement came to life in 1910 and 1911, with Uzbek workers taking part. On July 1,1912, the Turkestan Sappers’ Uprising took place.

World War I initially brought an economic upsurge to Uzbekistan: cotton planting expanded, new cotton-ginning mills were built, the proletariat increased in size, and a local industrial bourgeoisie emerged. In the second half of 1915, however, an economic slump began. The rapid development of cotton growing at the expense of grain crops resulted in higher prices for bread, foodstuffs, and fodder. Exports from Uzbekistan of raw materials, foodstuffs, and fodder for industry and the army increased, and imports of bread and manufactured articles declined; by 1916 bread prices had increased fourfold. When cotton prices fell in 1916, widespread economic ruin of peasant farms ensued.

The revolutionary crisis was ripening in Uzbekistan and throughout Turkestan, as was evidenced by the Middle Asian Uprising of 1916. The immediate cause of the uprising was a tsarist ukase providing for the compulsory enlistment of the local population in rear-services work. Approximately 120,000 men were to be called up from the region of present-day Uzbekistan. The uprising, essentially an anticolonial national liberation rebellion, began on July 4 in Khodzhent and soon spread throughout Turkestan. Only in a few areas did reactionary feudal-clerical circles attempt to exploit the uprising in order to achieve their own class goals. The uprising was brutally suppressed, but the people’s struggle against tsarism continued.

The Great October Socialist Revolution and the Civil War and Military Intervention (1917–20). After the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia, soviets of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies were formed in Turkestan Krai. Leadership in the soviets was assumed by the Mensheviks and SR’s. The Uzbek bourgeoisie, feudal lords, and clergy formed the nationalist counterrevolutionary organizations Shura-i-Islam (Council of Islamists) and Shura-i-Ulema (Council of the Clergy). The Mladobukhartsy (Young Bukharans) stepped up their activities. The Turkestan Committee of the Provisional Government was formed in Tashkent on Apr. 7 (20), 1917; all power was held by the committee. The first trade unions of industrial workers of the indigenous nationalities were created: the councils of Muslim workers and the leagues of Muslim working people (Ittifak). In the summer and fall of 1917 workers’ strikes took place in Uzbekistan; the dehqans (land-holding peasants) organized a movement for land and water, and revolutionary protests broke out among the troops of Turkestan Okrug.

In the soviets of workers’ deputies, the Bolsheviks formed a bloc with the Left SR’s and Menshevik Internationalists in order to mobilize the masses for an armed uprising against the Provisional Government. On Sept. 12 (25), 1917, a mass meeting of 7,000 people in Tashkent adopted a resolution calling for the transfer of all power to the soviets. On October 25 (November 7) the presidium of the Tashkent soviet passed a resolution to undertake preparations for the armed uprising. On October 27 (November 9) P. A. Korovichenko, commissar-general of the Provisional Government in Turkestan, declared the city under martial law, arrested several members of the executive committee of the soviet, and disarmed revolutionary-minded soldiers of the Siberian 2nd Reserve Rifle Regiment. Despite these precautions, the armed uprising began on the morning of October 28 (November 10); it was led by a revolutionary committee that was set up the same day under the chairmanship of the Bolshevik V. S. Liapin. A workers’ druzhina (combat detachment) of 2,500 fought in the uprising, together with soldiers from several units who had machine guns and artillery pieces. The rebels were aided by the workers and soldiers of Perovsk, Samarkand, Kushka, and Chardzhui (Chardzhou). After a four-day battle, the uprising achieved victory in Tashkent on Nov. 1(14), 1917.

The Third Krai Congress of Soviets, held Nov. 15–22 (Nov. 28-Dec. 5), 1917, proclaimed Soviet power in Turkestan; the congress elected the Council of People’s Commissars of the krai; the Bolshevik F. I. Kolesov was named the council’s chairman. The Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia and the appeal of the Council of People’s Commissars of the RSFSR “To All Muslim Toilers of Russia and the East, ” which were published in local newspapers, exerted a marked revolutionizing influence on the working people of Uzbekistan’s indigenous nationalities. Between November 1917 and March 1918 Soviet power was established in all the regions of Uzbekistan belonging to Turkestan Krai. Supported by the English imperialists, the nationalist bourgeoisie and Muslim clergy joined with the Russian White Guards in an armed struggle against Soviet power. The Fourth Extraordinary Regional Muslim Congress, held in Kokand Nov. 26–29 (Dec. 9–12), 1917, proclaimed Turkestan to be autonomous and established a bourgeois nationalist government called the Kokand Autonomy.

In the second half of February 1918 the nationalists, who did not enjoy the support of the toiling masses, were routed by Red Guard detachments. Initially, certain leaders of Soviet Turkestan committed errors concerning the national question, and the indigenous population was not sufficiently represented in the organs of Soviet power. The bourgeois nationalists exploited these mistakes for counterrevolutionary ends. P. A. Kobozev, extraordinary commissar of the Soviet government, visited Turkestan in April and May 1918 in order to help the local Communists implement national policies and strengthen Soviet power.

The Fifth Congress of Soviets of the krai, held in April 1918, was conducted in two languages; indigenous nationalities made up a considerable portion of the delegates. On Apr. 30,1918, the congress proclaimed the formation of the Turkestan ASSR within the RSFSR. Members of the local nationalities were given government posts, thus becoming involved in state administration. The Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars were elected; P. A. Kobozev was named chairman of the former, and F. I. Kolesov was made chairman of the latter. Organization of the Red Army was begun. The land, bodies of water, industrial enterprises, banks, and railroads were nationalized, and the eight-hour day was introduced. In May 1918 the Council of People’s Commissars of the RSFSR allocated 50 million rubles for irrigation projects and for improving the economic condition of the peasants. In October 1918, the Sixth Congress of Soviets ratified the first Constitution of the Turkestan ASSR.

The political and economic measures of Soviet power encountered resistance from the displaced exploiters, who were actively supported by the imperialists of the Entente. The underground group known as the Turkestan Union of Struggle Against Bolshevism, which united the forces of counterrevolution in the krai, was established in Tashkent. The Basmachi revolt (seeBASMACHI REVOLT), which was centered in the Fergana Valley, played a major role in the struggle against Soviet power in the Uzbek areas of Turkestan. The Fergana Front was formed in July 1918. The Semirech’e Front was established to combat the White Czechs and White Guards. In July the ataman A. I. Dutov captured Orenburg and cut the republic off from Central Russia. The Bukhara and Khiva khanates stepped up their actions against Soviet Turkestan. The republic found itself encircled by fronts. The Communist Party of Turkestan, which had been created in June 1918, mobilized all available manpower and equipment to crush the enemy; party and trade union members and workers were called up. Former prisoners of war of various nationalities joined the struggle against the counterrevolution. The Tashkent Anti-Soviet Revolt of 1919 began in the early morning of Jan. 19, 1919; it was suppressed on January 21 after intense fighting. In the course of the revolt, 14 Turkestan Bolshevik commissars were brutally killed (see).

In August 1919 the southern troops of the Eastern Front were transformed into the Turkestan Front, under the command of M. V. Frunze. The troops of the Turkestan Front began a resolute offensive and routed the southern forces of A. V. Kolchak. On September 13 the troops of the Turkestan Front linked up with units of the Red Army of the Turkestan Republic at the Mu-godhzar railroad station. Nearly all the Fergana Valley was liberated by the spring of 1920.

The task of peacetime construction was now paramount. The government of the RSFSR was cognizant of the complex nature of national and social relations in the krai, the remoteness of the krai from Central Russia, and the international importance of consolidating Soviet power in Middle Asia. In the fall of 1919, therefore, the government of the RSFSR and the Central Committee of the RCP(B) sent to Turkestan the Turkestan Commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars of the RSFSR. The commission’s primary task was to render all possible assistance to local party organizations and organs of Soviet power.

In February 1920 the people of Khiva overthrew their despotic feudal system with the support of Red Army units; in April 1920 the Khorezm People’s Soviet Republic was proclaimed. Soviet power, was established in Bukhara in September 1920 (seeBUKHARA OPERATION OF 1920); shortly thereafter the Bukhara People’s Soviet Republic was created, thereby eliminating a stronghold of counterrevolution in Middle Asia.

Socialist construction (1921–40). The Civil War wreaked havoc on the economy of Uzbekistan. In 1921 agricultural output was one-third of prewar output. In 1920 the sown area was little more than half that of 1915. The irrigation system had suffered heavy damage. In the Fergana Valley, the main cotton-growing region, the area planted with cotton declined from 288,000 desiatinas (1 desiatina = 1.09 hectares [ha]) in 1915 to 39,700 desiatinas in 1920. The raising of livestock also declined: of the 24 million head of livestock in Turkestan in 1915, only 8 million were left in 1920. Industry and transportation were in a state of nearly total collapse: of the 306 industrial enterprises of Turkestan administered by the Supreme Council on the National Economy, only 82 were operating on May 1, 1922. The population was threatened by famine and epidemic. Despite the grave situation in Russia, the Soviet government provided substantial aid to the working people of Turkestan. In 1920, 33 special trains with seed, grain, textiles, and equipment were dispatched to Turkestan.

The rebuilding of the national economy was made more difficult by the general economic and cultural backwardness of the krai. The existence of precapitalist relations and the influence of the Muslim clergy and the feudal beys provided a breeding ground for the Basmachi revolt, which was supported by the British imperialists. Turkey’s former minister of war, Enver Pasha, who arrived in Bukhara in October 1921, supported the unification of all Muslims in a single Islamic state. He managed to transform unorganized bands of Basmachi into a 16,000-man army and in early 1922 seized a considerable part of the Bukhara People’s Soviet Republic. The Basmachi revolt was threatening the very existence of Soviet power in Turkestan. On Oct. 14, 1921, the Central Committee of the RCP(B) declared the suppression of the Basmachi revolt to be the most important task of the local party and soviet bodies. The Council of People’s Commissars and the Central Committee of the RCP(B) sent Commander in Chief S. S. Kamenev, G. K. Ordzhonikidze, and Sh. Z. Eliava to Tashkent to deal with the Basmachi. In the summer of 1922 the Red Army routed Enver Pasha’s bands. Remnants of the bands took cover in Afghanistan and Iran and repeatedly raided Soviet territory; they were not completely destroyed until 1926.

In the spring of 1921 implementation of the first land and water reform began in Turkestan. The carrying out of the reform was greatly aided by the Koshchi union, which had been established in September 1920, and united the poor and middle strata of the peasantry. The government of the RSFSR allocated large sums to restore the irrigation system and supplied foodstuffs to regions that had suffered from the Basmachi; cotton farms were declared exempt from state taxes for several years.

The restoration of Uzbekistan’s national economy, which had begun when the Civil War was still being fought, proceeded with the assistance of the fraternal republics. Old industrial enterprises went into operation again, and new factories and mills were built; small semicottage enterprises were reconstructed and expanded. By 1925 nine electric power plants had been built. A transport machine shop and a tannery were established in Tashkent, and a foundry was built in Atrek. Equipment, skilled workers, teachers, and doctors were dispatched to the republic from Central Russia, and textbooks were sent for schools.

The successes in economic and cultural construction paved the way for the national-state demarcation of the Soviet republics of Middle Asia. The Uzbek SSR was created on Oct. 27,1924, by a resolution of a session of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR; the new republic included several uezdy (districts) and volosts (small rural districts) of the former Samarkand, Syr Darya, and Fergana oblasts, as well as several raions of the Khorezm and Bukhara soviet socialist republics. Until 1929 the Tadzhik ASSR was part of the Uzbek SSR.

The first Constituent Congress of Soviets of the republic was held on Feb. 13 to 17, 1925. The congress adopted the Declaration on the Formation of the Uzbek SSR, elected the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee (Iu. Akhunbabaev, chairman), and ratified the composition of the Council of People’s Commissars (F. Khodzhaev, chairman). The Uzbek SSR was incorporated into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics at the Third Congress of Soviets of the USSR in May 1925. The formation of the Uzbek SSR accelerated the economic, political, and cultural development of the Uzbek nation. National working-class cadres were created. Under the guidance of the Central Committee of the ACP(B), the Communist Party of Uzbekistan made every effort to include local nationalities in soviet and economic bodies; official business was transacted in both Uzbek and in Russian.

Uzbekistan’s economy developed more rapidly than that of the USSR as a whole. During the prewar five-year plans, more than 500 industrial enterprises of various types were built in the Uzbek SSR, including the Tashsel’mash plant, the Tashkent Textile Combine, and the Chirchik Electrochemical Combine. Petroleum production increased from 13,000 tons in 1913 to 119,000 tons in 1940. New, socialist cities were built around large industrial enterprises, and old cities, such as Chirchik, Bekabad, and Kattakurgan, were modernized. In 1940 the republic had a total of 756,300 industrial and nonindustrial workers, 31 percent of whom were women.

In November 1925 the Second Congress of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Uzbekistan approved a decree on land and water reform that provided for the abolition of feudal relations, the confiscation of surplus lands from the kulaks, and the transfer of water distribution rights to state bodies. The reform was carried out between 1926 and 1929. Approximately 90,000 peasants possessing little or no land received plots. The implementation of the reform and the establishment of a regular system of land allocation fostered an upsurge in agricultural production; in 1928 agricultural output stood at 76 percent of the 1913 level, and the amount of cotton harvested and planted surpassed the 1914 level. The high marketability of agricultural products promoted the development of agricultural cooperation; at the beginning of mass collectivization, 81 percent of peasant farms were cooperative in one form or another.

Government measures to improve irrigation, including the organization of a collective system of water use and the implementation of cooperation, led to the unification of peasant farms into kolkhozes. As of Oct. 1, 1929, Uzbekistan’s kolkhozes represented 3 percent of all farms. In 1930 the percentage of farms that had been incorporated into kolkhozes was as follows: 32 percent in the cotton-growing regions, 30 percent in grain-growing regions, and 19.6 percent in livestock-raising regions. Sixty sovkhozes were established in Uzbekistan in 1929 and 1930. By the end of 1930, 34.4 percent of all peasant farms were collectivized. The kolkhoz movement provoked the resistance of the beys, kulaks, and clergy. Gangs of Basmachi appeared in several regions but were soon eliminated. Between 1928 and 1932 the area planted with cotton rose from 589,200 to 994,800 ha.

Owing to the successful implementation of the first and second five-year plans, the collectivization of agriculture was completed. In 1937 kolkhozes included 95 percent of peasant farms and 99.4 percent of the sown area. Cotton growing became a leading branch of the national economy. In 1937, 1,521,700 tons of raw cotton were harvested, as compared to 860,000 tons in 1933. Receipts from the sale of kolkhoz output increased from 29 million rubles in 1932 to 222 million rubles in 1937.

On the 15th anniversary of the republic in December 1939, the Uzbek SSR was awarded the Order of Lenin for its successes in the development of agriculture, especially cotton growing. The Bol’shoi Fergana Canal, built by a citizen volunteer force, went into service in December 1939, increasing the water supply for more than 500,000 ha of irrigated lands. The cotton harvest of 1940 was 2.7 times greater than that of 1913 and accounted for 62 percent of the cotton output of the USSR. Uzbekistan led the USSR in the production of raw silk, with more than 50 percent of the total. The Kara-Kalpak ASSR became part of the Uzbek SSR under the Constitution of the USSR of 1936.

The kulaks and beys were eliminated in the course of socialist construction, and the new class of the kolkhoz peasantry was formed. The modernization of agricultural equipment and the mechanization of the most labor-intensive processes advanced. A cultural revolution was carried out; illiteracy was eliminated, schools were created with free instruction conducted in the local language, and a system of cultural-educational institutions was established. The standard of living of the working people improved, and their daily life was transformed.

The status of women changed; they obtained rights equal to those of men, and in 1921 polygamy and kalim (bride money) were banned. These reforms were carried out despite the stubborn resistance of the feudal Muslim reaction. In 1927 alone, 203 terrorist acts were committed against female activists. The struggle for the emancipation of women was one of the most important tasks of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Uzbekistan in implementing the cultural revolution. In 1927 the party proclaimed a khudzhum, or offensive, against the parandzha (cloaklike garment) and the old way of life. A special commission on improving the life of working women was established under the Central Executive Committee of the Uzbek SSR. Uzbek women were drawn into social and political life in large numbers.

A Soviet Uzbek intelligentsia was formed during the prewar five-year plans. The Uzbek socialist nation took shape. The building of a socialist society was virtually completed in the Uzbek SSR, as it was throughout the country. As a result of the implementation of the Leninist nationalities policy, Uzbekistan leaped forward from feudalism to socialism, thereby bypassing the capitalist stage of development.

The Great Patriotic War of1941–45 and the subsequent years of the creation of a developed socialist society. At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, the economy of the republic was put on a wartime footing. Approximately 100 industrial enterprises were moved to Uzbekistan from the front-line regions (including 48 enterprises of heavy industry), along with dozens of military and civilian educational institutions, hospitals, and scientific institutions. Uzbekistan took in more than 1 million evacuees, including 200,000 children. Many large units of the Soviet Army were formed in Uzbekistan, including Uzbek national units. Approximately 1 million Uzbeks fought on the fronts of the Great Patriotic War. About 280 were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, and 120,000 were awarded orders and medals, with 32 being awarded the Order of Glory, First, Second, and Third Class.

Uzbekistan became an arsenal of the Soviet Army. By the middle of 1942, all plants that had been relocated to Uzbekistan were operating at full capacity. The working people of Uzbekistan donated 316 million rubles to the Defense Fund in 1943. Seven electric power plants were built during the war, including the powerful Farkhad Hydroelectric Power Plant; as a result, the production of electric power more than tripled. Approximately 280 new industrial enterprises were constructed, and the fixed production assets of industry nearly doubled. The first metallurgical plant in Uzbekistan began turning out steel in March 1944. Coal mining developed in the Angren coal deposit. Petroleum production reached 478,000 tons in 1945, a figure four times higher than that of 1940. The gross output of the chemical industry was five times higher than in 1940. Heavy industry, primarily machine building and metalworking, underwent considerable development; in 1943 it accounted for 49 percent of the total gross industrial product. The sowing of grain crops was expanded, and the cultivation of sugar beets was introduced. Ten large irrigation systems and a number of smaller ones were operating by 1944; the area of irrigated land increased by 545,700 ha. After the Great Patriotic War, cotton growing underwent extensive development.

Uzbekistan provided substantial assistance to the liberated western regions of the country in the form of agricultural and industrial products, equipment, and specialists. The republic became the location of 113 military hospitals. The wounded fighting men sent to them for medical treatment were provided with care and attention by the party, the Uzbek government, public health workers, and all the working people of the republic. More than 60,000 Uzbek working people were honored by the state for their feats of labor during the war years.

After the war, hundreds of new, modern plants, mines, factories, and oil fields, all supplied with the latest equipment, were established in the republic. In 1956, Uzbekistan produced twice as much electric power as all of tsarist Russia in 1913. The Golod-naia Steppe was opened up to agricultural development. In 1956, Uzbekistan delivered 2,857,000 tons of cotton to the state. The Uzbek SSR was awarded the Order of Lenin in that year for the second time in recognition of its successes in the development of agriculture. Uzbekistan has become a highly developed industrial and agricultural socialist republic. Together with all the peoples of the USSR, the working people of Uzbekistan, as members of a developed socialist society, are laboring to create a material and technical basis for communism.

The Uzbek national economy and culture continued to advance in the 1960’s and 1970’s. A large chemical industry is being created. During the postwar five-year plans, large gas pipelines running between Bukhara and the Urals and between Middle Asia and Central Russia went into service. The mechanization of agriculture has been increasing at a rapid rate. The extensive development of irrigation has played an enormous role in increasing cotton output.

On Jan. 1,1976, 803 citizens of the republic were awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor. To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the USSR, the republic was awarded the Order of Friendship of Peoples on Dec. 29,1972; on Oct. 21,1974, it was awarded the Order of the October Revolution to mark the 50th anniversary of the Uzbek SSR and the Communist Party of Uzbekistan.

SOURCES

REFERENCES

KH. SH. INOIATOV

The Communist Party of Uzbekistan is a component part of the CPSU. The first Social Democratic circles and groups in Uzbekistan were created in 1904–05 in Tashkent, Samarkand, Kokand, Novyi Margelan (Fergana), and Chardzhui under the leadership of the banished Social Democrats A. R. Bakhirev, V. D. Korniushin, K. D. Litvishko, M. V. Morozov, and A. V. Khu-dash. RSDLP organizations from industrial regions of Russia and, in particular, the Baku Committee of the RSDLP played an important role in the creation of the first Social Democratic groups in Turkestan. During the Revolution of 1905–07, the Social Democratic committees in Turkestan conducted propaganda work among workers and soldiers and led strikes.

The First Turkestan Conference of the RSDLP, held in Tashkent in February 1906, united the Social Democrats of the region in the Union of Turkestan Organizations of the RSDLP. The Social Democrats of Turkestan maintained regular contact with the Central Committee of the RSDLP, and their representatives attended the Fourth Congress of the RSDLP (1906). The Social Democratic organizations were crushed during the reactionary years of 1907–10. The Bolsheviks conducted underground work, especially after the arrival of the Bolsheviks V. P. Vakhin, D. V. Poluian, V. N. Finkel’shtein, I. T. Fioletov, and N. V. Shumilov.

After the February Revolution of 1917, unified organizations of the RSDLP were established and recreated in the region. Outstanding party figures included the Bolsheviks E. A. Babushkin, V. P. Bilik, F. D. Dunaev, V. S. Liapin, A. A. Kazakov, P. G. Poltoratskii, A. F. Sol’kin, M. P. Sorokin, V. D. Figel’skii, and A. I. Frolov, as well as representatives of local nationalities, including A. Abdurashidov, A. Babadzhanov, Dzh. Kamalov, and N. Khalmukhamedov. During the period of preparation for the socialist revolution, the Bolshevik and Menshevik factions became

separate organizations. Independent Bolshevik organizations ensured the preparation and victory of the October Revolution of 1917 in Turkestan.

At the first congress of the region’s Bolshevik organizations in June 1918 it was decided to found the Communist Party of Turkestan, which played a large role in the establishment of the Communist parties of Bukhara and Khorezm. The leaders of the Central Committee of the RCP(B), the Turkestan Commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Council of People’s Commissars of the RSFSR, the Turkestan Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP(B), and the Middle Asian Bureau of the Central Committee of the ACP(B) played a significant part in the consolidation of Communist organizations in Middle Asia. V. V. Kuibyshev, Ia. E. Rudzutak, M. V. Frunze, Sh. Z. Eliava, and the local workers Iu. Akhunbabaev, A. Ikra-mov, T. Ryskulov, N. Tiuriakulov, and F. Khodzhaev accomplished a good deal for the party in Turkestan.

In connection with the national-state demarcation of the Soviet republics of Middle Asia, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the RCP(B) adopted a resolution in 1924 to reorganize the Communist parties of Turkestan, Bukhara, and Khorezm as the Communist parties of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan and the oblast party organizations of Tadzhikistan, Kirghizia, and Kara-Kalpakia. The organizational bureau of the CP(B) of Uzbekistan, which was created in October 1924, laid the groundwork for the constituent congress of the CP(B) of Uzbekistan; the congress, held Feb. 6–12, 1925, in Bukhara, formalized the creation of the party. The CP(B) of Uzbekistan was ideologically and organizationally strengthened in the struggle against Trotskyism and national deviationism and for the victory of the principles of proletarian internationalism. The resolution of the Central Committee of the ACP(B) of May 25, 1929, on the activity of the party organization of Uzbekistan was important in improving the work of the CP(B) of Uzbekistan.

The CP(B) of Uzbekistan mobilized the toiling masses for the consolidation of Soviet power, the struggle against the Basmachis and local feudal lords, the implementation of socialist industrialization, the collectivization of agriculture, and the cultural revolution. The Communists of Uzbekistan made great efforts to emancipate Uzbek women, encouraging them to work and take part in public life.

During the Great Patriotic War (1941–45), the CP(B) of Uzbekistan conducted intensive economic, organizational, and political work to mobilize all the economic and human resources of Uzbekistan and defeat the fascist German aggressors. Approximately 50 percent of the members of the CP(B) of Uzbekistan went off to the front. The CP(B) of Uzbekistan devoted particular attention to the immediate operation of industrial enterprises evacuated from the frontline regions. Another important task was the quartering of more than 1 million people evacuated from the western USSR, including approximately 200,000 children.

After the victorious conclusion of the war, the CP(B) of Uzbekistan shifted the republic to a peacetime economy and made plans for its further development. The party carried out a series of measures to help normalize the economy of the regions of the USSR devastated by the fascist occupiers. The Communist Party of Uzbekistan led the working people of the republic in a struggle to complete the building of socialism and create a fully developed socialist society. The working people of the republic, led by the party, won significant victories in their campaigns to develop productive forces and raise the standard of living. These successes were examples of the practical realization of the Leninist national policy of the CPSU. The party improved its work methods and increased its role in all areas of communist construction.

Work to increase party membership has improved substantially. In February 1976 the Communist Party of Uzbekistan had more than 489,050 members, more than 73 percent of whom worked in the sphere of material production; representatives of the working class and kolkhozniks made up 61.9 percent. In 1976 there were 12 oblast committees, 26 city committees, nine city raion committees, and 134 rural raion committees. There were seven party committees with the rights of raion committees of the party and more than 15,800 local party organizations. The party includes representatives of approximately 90 nationalities and ethnic groups living in Uzbekistan. Organizationally and ideologically firm, united around the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Communist Party of Uzbekistan ensures the successful fulfillment of the tasks of communist construction.

REFERENCES

KH. T. TURSUNOV

The Lenin Komsomol of Uzbekistan is a constituent part of the All-Union Lenin Komsomol. The first revolutionary leagues of working youth of Uzbekistan were established ia 1917–18 in Tashkent, Samarkand, Kokand, and Andizhan by Bolshevik organizations. In April 1919 the Socialist League of Working Youth of Tashkent was renamed the Communist Youth League, and its charter was adopted. The first Communist youth groups were organized with the assistance of the Central Committee of the RCP(B), the Central Committee of the Russian Komsomol, and the krai committee of the Communist Party of Turkestan. The Communist Youth League of Turkestan was created in January 1920 at the first congress of Komsomol organizations of Turkestan in Tashkent. The first constituent congress of the Komsomol of Uzbekistan was held in Samarkand on Apr. 5–8,1925, in conjunction with the formation of the Uzbek SSR in 1924.

The Komsomol members of Uzbekistan fought for Soviet power during the Civil War and struggled against the Basmachis. They assisted the party in strengthening the organs of Soviet power, carrying out land and water reforms, wiping out illiteracy, and emancipating women; in 1928 alone, more than 800 Uzbek girls were sent by the Uzbekistan Komsomol for training in tech-nicums and specialized schools.

In 1925, 6,690 of the 11,430 industrial workers of Uzbekistan were Komsomol members. The Komsomol of Uzbekistan was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labor of the Uzbek SSR in 1928 for its successful work in socialist construction. During the first five-year plans, Komsomol members took part in industrialization, the collectivization of agriculture, and the implementation of the cultural revolution.

During the Great Patriotic War (1941–45), 221,500 persons-more than half the Komsomol members of Uzbekistan—were mobilized into the Soviet Army. The title Hero of the Soviet Union was conferred upon the Komsomol members Dzh. Kara-kulov, K. Pulatov, E. Stempkovskaia, K. Suiunov, M. Tapy-valdyev, and V. Shalandin, among others. During the war, 190,000 people joined the Komsomol and more than 14,000 Komsomol members of Uzbekistan became party members. In 1944, 7,357 frontline youth brigades and units for cotton cultivation worked in the fields. Komsomol members headed 1,275 kolkhozes.

During the postwar years, the Komsomol of Uzbekistan participated in the construction of all large-scale industrial projects and in the development of agriculture. In 1949, 20,000 young men and women went off to develop the Golodnaia Steppe. In the ninth five-year plan (1971–75), the Komsomol of Uzbekistan was the sponsor of 15 all-Union and republic Komsomol shock building projects in Uzbekistan, including the Bukhara cotton combine, the Middle Asia-Center and Bukhara-Urals gas pipelines, the Tashkent subway, and the Andizhan and Tuiamuiun reservoirs. Since 1959 the Komsomol of Uzbekistan has sponsored the introduction of comprehensive mechanization in cotton growing.

The Komsomol works extensively toward the communist education of young people. Between 1971 and 1974, in the course of the Leninist examination Carry Out the Resolutions of the Twenty-fourth Congress of the CPSU!, 2 million young people passed examinations in civic maturity. Student construction detachments have become an important form of labor education for young people. Between 1964 and 1974 they consisted of 122,000 people, who put into operation 125 million rubles worth of capital investments. The Komsomol members of Uzbekistan are united in 12 oblast organizations, 165 city and rural raion organizations, and 19,042 local organizations. The Komsomol of Uzbekistan was awarded the Order of Lenin in 1975 for its active role in communist construction.

REFERENCES

E. GAFURZHANOV

The trade unions of Uzbekistan are a constituent part of the trade unions of the USSR. The first trade unions in Turkestan, in what is now Uzbekistan, were created during the Revolution of 1905–07 by the railroad workers of Turkestan. After the defeat of the revolution, these unions were liquidated. They were reestablished in February 1917. Trade unions were organized on a large scale after the victory of the October Revolution of 1917. During the Civil War (1918–20) the trade unions of Uzbekistan helped mobilize workers for the struggle against the White Guards and the Basmachis. They also helped form Red Army units and volunteer detachments. The Constituent Congress of Trade Unions of Uzbekistan was held in Tashkent on Mar. 21, 1925. By this time, the unions included more than 90,000 industrial and nonindustrial workers, small handicraftsmen, and farm laborers.

During the years of socialist construction, the trade unions of Uzbekistan, under the guidance of party organizations, helped carry out socialist transformations, the industrialization of the country, the collectivization of agriculture, and the cultural revolution. The trade unions made great progress in training and educating national cadres of the working class and the intelligentsia. They also contributed to the emancipation of Uzbek women, involving them in social production and state administration. The trade unions organized socialist competition, the shock worker movement, and the Stakhanovite movement.

During the Great Patriotic War (1941–45), the trade unions of Uzbekistan played an important role in shifting the republic to a wartime economy, expanding military production, receiving and putting into operation the industrial enterprises evacuated to Uzbekistan, and settling evacuated Soviet people.

During the postwar period, the trade unions helped develop the economy and culture of the republic and encouraged socialist competition and a communist attitude toward labor. They struggled to raise labor productivity by organizing campaigns for innovation in production. They exercised state and social control over the protection of labor, safety measures, and the observance of labor legislation. The trade unions continue to demonstrate their concern for the improvement of work and leisure conditions for industrial, nonindustrial, and agricultural workers and accomplish a great deal for the communist education of the working people.

Approximately 89 percent of the industrial and office workers of Uzbekistan took part in socialist competition as of Jan. 1, 1975. Approximately 182,000 people, including more than 133,000 industrial workers, took part in 5,167 permanent conferences on production. More than 110,000 industrial workers, engineers, technicians, and office workers of the republic are members of the All-Union Society of Inventors and Innovators. The Uzbek Republic Council of Trade Unions was elected in November 1948 at the first inter-union conference. In 1976 there were more than 3.6 million trade union members, belonging to 19 specialized unions. On Jan. 1,1976, the trade unions of the republic had 743 clubs and houses and palaces of culture, 950 libraries, 1,361 permanent film projection units, 11,402 recreation and reading rooms, 262 people’s universities, 9,357 amateur artistic groups, and six voluntary sports societies. The budget for state social insurance exceeded 500 million rubles in 1974.

The trade unions of Uzbekistan maintain ties with the trade union organizations of a number of foreign countries.

REFERENCES

M. ZAIDOV

Overview. Modern Uzbekistan is a republic whose economy comprises many branches of industry, as well as a highly developed agricultural sector. In 1974, 67.4 percent of the gross social product was provided by industry and construction, 22.8 percent by agriculture, 3.1 percent by transportation and communications, and 6.7 percent by trade, procurement, and material and technical supply. Capital investment totaled 45.8 billion rubles

during the period 1924–74. Light industry and the food-processing industry are well developed in the republic, and heavy industry is growing. Uzbekistan is the greatest cotton producer in the USSR, and its sericulture, fruit growing, viticulture, vegetable growing, and breeding of Karakul sheep are of countrywide importance.

Uzbekistan ranks first in the USSR in the production of cotton fiber, raw silk, kenaf stems, karakul, mechanical cotton harvesters, cotton gins, tractor-propelled cotton planters, cotton-processing equipment, and roving frames; it is second in output of spinning frames, third in electric bridge cranes, cotton and silk fabrics, vegetable oil, rice, and vegetables, and fourth in natural gas.

A number of large production complexes, each involving more than one sector of the economy, have been built in Uzbekistan. The cotton complex, for example, involves land cultivation, livestock raising, and processing operations. There are also complexes for construction and the production of building materials, nonferrous metallurgy, fuel production, electrical energy production, chemical production, machine building and metalworking, and the production of consumer goods and food products. The development of these complexes has promoted specialization of production and a more rational distribution of the productive forces of the republic.

Uzbekistan has established economic ties with all the Union republics, but ties are especially close with Kazakhstan, the republics of Middle Asia, and regions of Siberia. Goods obtained from other Union republics include ferrous metals, petroleum products, machinery and equipment, timber, chemical fertilizer, grain, and consumer goods. In turn, Uzbekistan supplies other regions with gold, nonferrous metals, machines, equipment, natural gas, marble, cotton fiber, raw silk, wool, karakul, fabrics, vegetable oil, vegetables, fruits, and grapes. The products of Uzbekistan are exported to many countries.

Industry. In 1975, total industrial output was 61 times higher than in 1913 and 13 times higher than in 1940. During the years 1941–75, labor productivity in industry grew by a factor of 3.9. As of Jan. 1,1976, the distribution of fixed assets among the various industries, expressed as percentages of total fixed assets, was as follows: electric power generation, 20.6; fuel production, 8.7; ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, 8.9; chemical production (including petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals), 11.3; machine building and metalworking, 15.1; production of building materials, 10.7; light industry, 10.1; and food processing, 7.3. The growth in industrial production by branch is given in Table 5; output of the principal industrial products is summarized in Table 6.

There have been fundamental changes in the territorial distribution of production. While in 1913 approximately 70 percent of all industrial enterprises were located in the Fergana Valley, today Tashkent and Tashkent Oblast make up the main industrial region. Great industrial centers have also been created in Samarkand and Bukhara oblasts, and enterprises have been constructed in the southern part of the republic and along the lower

course of the Amu Darya. Heavy industry figures prominently.

Electric power generation has been growing at a rapid rate. In 1913 there were six electric power plants, with a total capacity of 3 megawatts (MW). The first hydroelectric plant, Bozsu (near Tashkent), went into operation in 1926; there was large-scale construction of hydroelectric plants during the early five-year plans, especially in Tashkent Oblast, where the Chirchik-Bozsu Hydroelectric System was built. Thermal power plants were also built, the largest being the Kuvasai State Regional Electric Power Plant (capacity 36 MW) and the Tashkent District Heat and Power Plant (43.5 MW). The Farkhad Hydroelectric Power Plant (126 MW), situated on the Syr Darya, went into operation in 1948. The Tashkent State Regional Electric Power Plant, now operating at full capacity (1,920 MW), began providing power in 1963. Other electric power plants that have been built in the republic include the Angren (612 MW), Navoi (830 MW), and Takhiatash state regional electric power plants and the Charvak Hydroelectric Power Plant (600 MW). Construction of the Syr Darya State Regional Electric Power Plant (rated capacity, 4,400 MW) is proceeding at an accelerated rate, and the first four units are already providing power. The total installed capacity of Uzbekistan’s power plants reached 6.7 gigawatts in 1975. The importance of thermal power plants, fueled for the most part by natural gas, in the generation of electric power is rapidly growing, while the proportion of power produced by hydroelectric plants is declining. In 1960, 54 percent of the electric power came from hydroelectric plants, but in 1975 the figure was 8 percent. limestone, sulfur, tailings from nonferrous metallurgy, and byproducts from the processing of raw cotton. Much work has been done on building up the production of mineral fertilizers for the cotton-growing industry. Important enterprises here are the Chirchik Electrochemical Combine (nitrogen fertilizers), the Kokand and Samarkand superphosphate plants, the Fergana Nitrogen Fertilizer Plant, the Almalyk Ammonium Phosphate Plant, and the Navoi Chemical Combine. Uzbekistan is fourth in the USSR (after the RSFSR, Ukrainian SSR, and Byelorussian SSR) in the production of mineral fertilizers. The republic also has enterprises for chemical hydrolysis (Andizhan, Fergana, Iangiiu’), and there are plants for the production of chemical fibers and filaments (Fergana), paints and varnishes (Tashkent), plastic articles (Tashkent, Akhangaran, Dzhizak), and rubber footwear.

A diversified machine-building industry has taken shape in Uzbekistan. Growth rates here regularly outstrip those for industry as a whole in the republic. Enterprises number approximately 230. The industry concerns itself mainly with equipment used in the growing and processsing of cotton. Agricultural machine building is represented by the Tashsel’mash, Uzbeksel’mash, Chirchiksel’mash, and Tashkent tractor plants and by the Tashkhimsel’mash plant. Electrical equipment is produced by the Tashkentkabel’ plant, the Tashkent Electrical Equipment Plant, the Tashelektromash and Kokandelektromash plants, the Elektroapparat and Elektrodvigatel’ plants (both in Andizhan), and the Chirchik and Namangan transformer plants.

Gas constitutes more than 70 percent of the republic’s energy resources. The main regions for the gas industry are Bukhara (28.9 billion cu m in 1975) and Kashkadar’ia (7.7 billion cu m) oblasts. Gazli, the site of one of the largest deposits in the country, is in Bukhara Oblast; other important areas are Fergana, Surkhandar’ia, and Andizhan oblasts. The gas is transported through a system of pipelines.

The main oil regions of Uzbekistan are the Fergana Valley and Bukhara Oblast. Fergana crude oil is light and has a high content of paraffin, benzine, and lube cut; refining is done at the Fergana and Altyaryk plants. Oil is also produced in the south of Uzbekistan in the basins of the Surkhandar’ia and Kashkadar’ia. Coal was first mined on a commercial scale during the Great Patriotic War of 1941^45. The industry was based on the deposits of lignite at Angren, where thick seams could be worked through surface mining. At present, the industry has an experimental underground coal gasification plant in operation. Extraction of coal from the Shargun’ anthracite deposits in Surkhandar’ia Oblast began in the 1950’s.

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by the Uzbek Metallurgical Plant (Bekabad), which uses scrap metal to produce steel and rolled stock. Nonferrous metallurgy, one of the republic’s leading branches of industry, is of all-Union importance. Among the larger enterprises are the Almalyk Mining and Metallurgical Combine, the Uzbek Refractory and Heat-resistant Metals Combine (Chirchik), and the Uzbekzoloto Combine. Various ores of nonferrous metals are mined in the republic; concentrates, metals, and nonferrous rolled stock are also produced.

In the late 1960’s, Uzbekistan developed an important chemical industry. The industry uses natural gas, petroleum, coal,

Among the enterprises producing household appliances and equipment for light industry and food processing are the Tashtek-stil’mash and Kokandtekstil’mash plants, the Tashkent Machine-building Plant, the Andizhan Kommunar plant, the Katta-kurgankhlopkomash and Samarkandkhlopkomash plants, and the Tashkent and Samarkand refrigerator plants. Production of machine tools is undergoing development, as is the manufacture of transportation equipment (plants for aircraft production and repair of diesel locomotives in Tashkent). Other divisions of machine building currently under development are instrumentation and the production of road-building equipment and municipal maintenance machinery (Tashkent Excavator Plant, Andizhan Machine-building Plant, Andizhanirmash plant, Samarkand Elevator Plant).

The building-materials industry, which uses local raw materials, produces cement, brick, lime, asbestos-cement pipes, shingles, ceramic products, wall materials, reinforced-concrete members and units, plastic articles, mineral wool, and materials used in sanitary-engineering facilities. Most of the enterprises are in Bekabad, Kuvasai, Angren, Akhangaran, Navoi, and Tashkent.

Light industry in Uzbekistan deals mainly with cotton processing and the production of textiles, clothing (including knitwear), and leather footwear. More than 100 cotton-processing enterprises are located in areas where the cotton is grown; the largest enterprises are the Iangiiul’, Andizhan, Tashlak, Bukhara, and Kattakurgan plants. Bast crops are subjected to preliminary processing in the Chirchik valley. Large textile enterprises include the Tashkent and Fergana textile combines, the Kokand Hosiery-spinning Combine, and the Namangan Silk Fabric Combine. The first stage of the large cotton combine in Bukhara went into operation in 1973. The production of nonwoven materials

organized in Uzbekistan is experiencing rapid growth. The Mar-gilan Combine is among the silk industry’s most important enterprises. There are leather plants in Kokand and Fergana.

The food-processing industry produces vegetable oil, animal fats, butter, cheese, milk, meat, wine, fruits, and vegetables. The division specializing in vegetable oil and animal fats supplied 12.9 percent of the country’s vegetable oil in 1975. The largest enterprises of this division are located in Fergana, Andizhan, Katta-kurgan, Iangiiul’, Leninsk, Kokand, and Namangan. The republic’s canneries provide a significant portion of the country’s total output of canned goods. Large canneries and fruit-processing enterprises have been built in Tashkent, Samarkand, Iangiiul’, Fergana, Namangan, Andizhan, and Shakhrisabz. Muinak is the site of a fish combine. In all, there are 21 wineries (Tashkent, Samarkand, Kitab) and an enterprise producing champagne (Tashkent).

Agriculture. During the years of Soviet power, agriculture has been placed on a highly mechanized, intensive basis. The total area of land used by agricultural enterprises and farms in 1975 was 32.5 million hectares (ha); of this total, 25.5 million ha were used in farming per se, including 3.8 million ha for crop cultivation, 21.4 million ha for hayfields and pastureland, and more than 200,000 ha for orchards, vineyards, and other perennials.

At the end of 1975 there were 572 sovkhozes and 953 kolkhozes. Equipment in use that year in agriculture included 148,000 tractors (23,000 in 1940), 28,700 mechanical cotton harvesters, 6,800 combine harvesters, and 46,100 trucks (5,900 in 1940). The total capacity of the equipment was 16,818,000 horsepower. Consumption of electric energy in agriculture rose from 869 million kilowatt-hours (kW-hrs) in 1965 to 3,847 million kW-hrs in 1975. The use of chemicals in agriculture is increasing. Deliveries of mineral fertilizers to agriculture rose from 2,548,000 tons in 1965 to 4,375,000 tons in 1975; over the same period, deliveries of fodder phosphate rose from 2,200 tons to 9,000 tons. A total of 16.1 billion rubles was spent on improving the material and technical base of agriculture during the period 1924–75, with 7.2 billion rubles of this total going to construction for water use management. Crop cultivation accounted for 75 percent of total agricultural output in 1975; animal husbandry contributed 25 percent.

Since agriculture in the republic is based on irrigation, much attention has been devoted to construction projects for water use management. During the years of Soviet power, new structures have been added to the irrigation system, and old structures have been rebuilt. The largest canals are the U. lusupov Bol’shoi Fergana Canal and the Amu-Bukhara, Eskiankhor, Severnaia Fergana, Iuzhnaia Golodnaia Steppe, Great Andizhan, Kirov, Lenin, and Karshi canals. Reservoirs include the Kattakurgan, Iuzhnyi Surkhan, Chimkurgan, Kuiumazar, Pachkamar, Tiuia-buguz, and Charvak. Uzbekistan has 22 percent of the country’s irrigated land, with 2,915,000 ha irrigated on kolkhozes, sovkhozes, and other state farms in 1974. In that year, the area irrigated through mechanical water-lifting exceeded 700,000 ha. The total area under cultivation was more than 1.5 million ha greater in 1975 than in 1913 (see Table 7). The structure of crop cultivation has also changed. While in 1913 grain crops occupied 70 percent of the sown area, in 1975 they occupied only 30.2 percent; during this same period, the share of industrial crops rose from 20.2 percent to 48.4 percent.

Cotton growing is the specialty of agriculture. Uzbekistan accounted for more than 64 percent of the country’s total harvest of raw cotton in 1975. The harvest in the republic averaged 3,982,000 tons during the years 1966–70 and 4,895,000 tons during the period 1971–75. An increase to 6.5–7 million tons is foreseen. The yield of cotton rose from 12.2 centners per ha in 1913 to 28.3 centners per ha in 1975. Cotton is planted mainly in the Fergana, Chirchik-Akhangaran, Zeravshan, and Surkhandar’ia valleys. Large cotton-growing regions have been developed in the Golodnaia Steppe, along the lower course of the Amu Darya, in the Surkhan-Sherabad steppe, and in the central part of the Fergana Valley. Work is under way to open up the Karshi Steppe.

Uzbekistan’s other industrial crops include kenaf (100 percent of the country’s crop in 1975), produced in Tashkent Oblast; tobacco, grown mainly in the vicinity of Urgut, in Samarkand Oblast; and sugarcane, grown near Denau, in Surkhandar’ia Oblast. The grain crops sown on nonirrigated lands (in Samarkand, Kashkadar’ia, Dzhizak, and other oblasts) are wheat and barley; those grown on irrigated land are rice (more than 14 percent of the country’s harvest), Indian corn, and Sorghum cernuum. The lower course of the Amu Darya has become a major rice-growing region. Kalinin, Ordzhonikidze, and Bostanlyk raions of Tashkent Oblast and Samarkand Raion of Samarkand Oblast specialize in vegetables, melons, and gourds. Approximately 60 percent of the orchards and vineyards of Middle Asia are in Uzbekistan. (The area used for growing berries, grapes, and other fruits is given in Table 8.) Apricots, peaches, apples, pears, cherries, pomegranates, figs, almonds, and various varieties of grapes (the ak-kishmish, kara-kishmish, Charas, and Khusaine) are cultivated. The major fruit-growing regions are the Fergana, Zeravshan, Chirchik, and Akhangaran valleys. (The harvests of the major agricultural crops are given in Table 9.)

Animal husbandry in Uzbekistan is geared toward the breeding of Karakul sheep. The republic is fifth in the country in sheep population (after the RSFSR, Kazakh SSR, Kirghiz SSR, and Ukrainian SSR), and it provides more than one-third of all karakul produced in the country. The sheep are pastured in desert and semidesert areas. Cattle are raised for meat, and sheep and goats for meat and tallow in the foothills and mountainous regions of the nonirrigated agricultural zone. In the irrigated zone, there is poultry farming, swine breeding, and the raising of sheep

for meat and tallow, as well as the raising of cattle for meat and dairy products. Horses and camels are also bred. (Table 10 gives the republic’s livestock population.)

Sericulture is one of the oldest branches of agriculture in Uzbekistan. All sovkhozes and kolkhozes specializing in cotton growing also engage in sericulture. Uzbekistan accounts for more than 58 percent of all the cocoons produced in the USSR. In recent times, high-quality strains of mulberry trees and new breeds of silkworms have been developed. (The output of the main products of livestock raising is given in Table 11.)

Fur farming is expanding along the lower course of the Amu Darya. Animals include the muskrat, silver fox, blue arctic fox, and mink.

The trend is toward greater specialization and concentration of production in all branches of livestock raising. Complexes for milk production have been constructed, as have facilities for the fattening of cattle and swine. Great importance is attached to improvements in breeding.

Data on state purchases of agricultural products are presented in Table 12.

Transportation. Uzbekistan has a well-developed transportation network. Railroads account for 80 percent of the freight turnover of the republic. The length of the railroad lines tripled during the period 1913–75, reaching 3,400 km, or 7.6 km per 1,000 sq km. Diesel engines supply the traction; the Tashkent operating division, however, is electrified. During the years of Soviet power, the following lines have been built: Fergana-Kyzyl-Kiia, Uchkurgan–Tash-Kumyr, Andizhan–Tentiaksai, Assake–Shakhrikhan, Amudar’inskaia (formerly Samsonovo)–Termez-Denau, Karshi–Kitab, Tashkent–Angren, Tashkent–Charvak, Chardzhou–Kungrad, Syrdar’inskaia–Dzhizak, Samarkand–Karshi, Navoi–Uchkuduk, and Takhiatash–Nukus. The republics of Middle Asia acquired a second outlet to the Caucasus and European part of the USSR when the Kungrad-Beineu line was put into service in 1972.

Over the years 1913–75, the volume of freight transported by railroad rose by a factor of almost 56, and the number of passengers grew by a factor of 6.4; freight turnover rose by a factor of 136, and the volume of passenger traffic rose by a factor of nearly 3.2.

As of 1975, Uzbekistan had 30,100 km of roads; 27,600 km of these roads were paved. The principal highways are the Tashkent–Termez (Great Uzbek Highway), Tashkent–Bukhara–Nukus–Muinak, and Tashkent–Angren–Kokand routes and the Fergana Ring, which links the cities of the Fergana Valley. A circular road has been built in the Kyzylkum. The freight turnover of automotive transport reached 13,563 million ton-km in 1975 (148 million in 1940), while the volume of passenger traffic was 11,504 million passenger-km (70 million in 1940).

There is navigation along the Amu Darya and on the Aral Sea. Pipelines play an important role in the transportation network. The major gas pipelines are the Middle Asia-Central Zone, Bukhara–Urals, and Bukhara–Tashkent–Frunze–Alma–Ata lines. Air transport is well developed, with routes linking Tashkent with Moscow, Leningrad, the capitals of the Union republics, industrial centers of the Urals, Siberia, and the Far East, and health resorts in the Crimea and Caucasus. Within the republic, there are routes linking Tashkent with oblast administrative centers and many other cities and settlements. Tashkent’s international airport has great importance because of the routes passing through it that link Moscow and a number of European capitals with the countries of Southeast Asia. In 1975, 52,000 tons of freight and 4.3 million passengers were transported by air.

Economic regions. The Tashkent region (Tashkent, Syr Darya, and Dzhizak oblasts), with 9.2 percent of the republic’s territory and 29.7 percent of the population, is the most highly developed industrial area. Agriculture here is highly intensive. This region provides more than 40 percent of the republic’s gross industrial output and approximately 22 percent of the gross agricultural output. Heavy industry accounts for nearly two-thirds of the industrial product. The Tashkent region is the republic’s principal area for coal mining (Angren), extraction of nonferrous metals, nonferrous (Almalyk, Chirchik) and ferrous (Bekabad) metallurgy, machine building (Tashkent, Chirchik), chemical production (Tashkent, Chirchik), production of building materials (Tashkent, Akhangaran, Angren, Chirchik), light industry, and food processing. There is also cotton growing, kenaf cultivation, fruit growing, viticulture, sericulture, livestock raising (for meat and dairy products), market gardening of vegetables, melons, and gourds, and dry farming of grain crops. Areas recently opened up to agriculture include the Golodnaia, Dzhizak, and Farish steppes—large cotton-growing regions with the most modern structures for water use management.

The Fergana region (Fergana, Andizhan, and Namangan oblasts), with 4.3 percent of the territory and 27.5 percent of the population, is the most densely populated area of the republic. It is the main region for cotton growing (31.1 percent of Uzbekistan’s harvest of raw cotton) and sericulture (47.1 percent of the cocoons), and there are large vineyards and orchards. The region’s other economic activities include the processing of agricultural products (Kokand, Margilan, Fergana, Andizhan, Namangan), machine building (Andizhan), chemical production (Kokand, Fergana), production of building materials (Kuvasai), oil drilling (near Andizhan and Fergana), and oil refining (Fergana and Altyaryk). The central part of the Fergana Valley has recently been reclaimed for agriculture.

The Samarkand–Karshi region (Samarkand and Kashkadar’ia oblasts) occupies 11.8 percent of the territory and has 18.3 percent of the population. Cotton growing here is highly developed, and fruit growing, viticulture, and sericulture are also important. There is tobacco growing and dry farming of grain crops in the foothills and mountainous regions, and Karakul sheep are raised in the steppes. Electrical equipment (Samarkand, Kattakurgan) and mineral fertilizers (Samarkand) are produced in this region, and there is also light industry and food processing (Samarkand, Karshi, Shakhrisabz, Kitab, Kattakurgan), production of building materials, and mining of nonferrous metals, marble, and

granite. Another industry is the building of machines not requiring large amounts of metal. The Karshi Steppe, an important new area for cotton growing (up to 1 million ha), is being reclaimed.

The Bukhara–Kyzylkum region (Bukhara Oblast), with 32 percent of the territory and 8.2 percent of the population, is a region of natural gas (Gazli) and oil production, nonferrrous metallurgy (Zarafshan), chemical production (Navoi), metalworking, light industry, and food processing (Bukhara, Kagan). It is the main region in Uzbekistan for the raising of Karakul sheep on desert pastureland; there is also cotton growing, fruit growing, and viticulture. The newly created irrigation system built around the Amu-Bukhara Canal has radically improved the region’s water supply, and the circular road in the Kyzylkum (more than 500 km) has similarly improved conditions for Karakul raising and the prospecting of minerals in the desert.

The Lower Amu Darya region (Kara-Kalpak ASSR and Kho-rezm Oblast), with 38 percent of the territory and 10.6 percent of the population, is a cotton- and rice-growing area in which livestock raising (cattle and Karakul sheep) is well developed. Kho-rezm melons and medic (for seeds) are cultivated, and there is fruit growing, viticulture, sericulture, and muskrat farming. Building materials are produced, and there is light industry and food processing, including fish canning. The construction of a second railroad outlet from Middle Asia across the lower course of the Amu Darya to the European part of the country (Chardzhou–Kungrad–Makat–Aleksandrov Gai) stimulated economic development in the region. The linking of the region to the unified power system of Middle Asia and the building of a dam with a bridge across the Amu Darya also added to development.

The Surkhandar’ia region (Surkhandar’ia Oblast), with 4.7 percent of the territory and 5.7 percent of the population, is one of the fine-staple cotton growing, subtropical fruit growing, viticulture, and the early growing of vegetables. The vegetable growing is a specialty of significance to the entire country. Coal and oil are extracted, and there is also light industry and food (fruit) processing. The Surkhan-Sherabad steppe has been reclaimed for agriculture.

Standard of living. The standard of living of the population is steadily rising. The national income was 2.7 times greater in 1975 than in 1960. The payments and benefits received by the population from social consumption funds in 1974 were 4.1 times greater than in 1960 (education, 4.6 times; public health and physical culture, 2.7, times; social insurance, 4.4 times). The amount paid out for pensions rose by a factor of 4.6. On a per capita basis, payments and benefits during this period rose by a factor of 2.7. Retail turnover in state and cooperative trade, including the food service industry, was 7,242 million rubles in 1975, compared with 523 million rubles in 1940. By the end of 1974 accounts in savings banks numbered 2,163,000 (526,000 in 1940) and totaled 1,530 million rubles (18 million in 1940). During the period 1924–75, construction by state and cooperative organizations and enterprises, kolkhozes, and individuals amounted to 115.5 million sqm of floor space, of which 24.8 million sq m were built during the years 1971–75.

REFERENCES

Z. M. AKRAMOV, E. B. TASHBEKOV, and K. N. BEDRINTSEV (economic regions)

Medicine and public health. In 1975 the birthrate was 34.5 and the death rate 7.2 per 1,000 inhabitants; the corresponding figures for 1940 are 33.8 and 13.2. The death rate was lower in 1975 than in 1913 by a factor of more than three.

Infectious and parasitic diseases were the main causes of death in prerevolutionary Uzbekistan. Outbreaks of malaria, cholera, plague, smallpox, tuberculosis, typhus, trachoma, helminthiases, and leishmaniases were widespread. By 1926, cholera, plague, and smallpox had been eliminated; visceral leishmaniasis and trachoma were eliminated somewhat later. Malaria is now recorded only in isolated cases, and there has been a sharp decline in the incidence of acute intestinal diseases, tuberculosis, and helminthiases. Sprue and amoebic dysentery, as well as other regional diseases, have been virtually eliminated. Before the October Revolution, illiterate tabibs and sorcerers treated the population. In 1913 there were 139 physicians and 63 hospitals with 1,000 beds in what is now Uzbekistan.

By Jan. 1, 1976, the republic had 1,159 hospitals with 145,600 beds, or 10.3 beds per 1,000 inhabitants. (By comparison, in 1940 there were 380 hospitals with 20,300 beds, or three beds per 1,000 inhabitants.) Specialized hospital beds numbered as follows (in thousands): therapeutics, 30.0; surgery, 15.8; otorhinolaryngol-ogy, 2.3; oncology, 2.4; ophthalmology, 2.8; neurology, 3.3; for pregnant women and women giving birth, 15.0; gynecology, 4.7; and children’s noninfectious diseases (exclusive of specialized hospital beds), 23.6. Outpatient care was provided in 1,848 outpatient polyclinics, 410 gynecological consultation clinics, 565 pédiatric polyclinics and outpatient clinics, 4,905 feldsher-obstetric stations, 39 medical-hygiene units at industrial enterprises, and 283 medical and 1,211 feldsher public health stations. There were 179 first-aid stations and units, 12 airborne health stations, 263 specialized dispensaries, 192 epidemiological stations, and more than 5,000 children’s preschool institutions with 527,000 places. Uzbekistan has 1,230 pharmacies and 3,595 pharmaceutical centers (in 1914 there were 33 privately operated pharmacies).

The republic has 36,500 physicians, or one per 385 inhabitants (in 1940 there were 3,200 physicians, or one per 2,100 inhabitants). There are 6,159 pharmacists and 108,900 paramedical personnel (12,200 in 1940). Medical specialists are trained at four medical institutes (two in Tashkent, one in Andizhan, and one in Samarkand), at a pharmaceutical institute in Tashkent, at 21 medical schools, and at the Institute for Advanced Training of Physicians in Tashkent. More than 250 doctors of medical sciences and approximately 2,000 candidates of medical sciences are on the staffs of the higher medical educational institutions and of the republic’s 13 medical research institutes.

Uzbekistan has 70 sanatoriums with 15,000 beds, including 44 children’s sanatoriums with 8,900 beds. The republic has 16 houses of rest with 3,200 beds, five resort hotels with 655 beds, and 22 other rest institutions with 2,400 beds. The most popular health resorts include the climatic resorts of Shakhimardan and Aktash, the balneological resorts of Chartak, Chimion, Tash-kentskie Mineral’nye Vody, Dzheiran-Khana, and Kyzyl-Tepe, and the balneological therapeutic areas of Iuzhnyi Alamyshik and Palvantash. According to the 1975 state budget, expenditures for public health in Uzbekistan amounted to 477 million rubles (24 million rubles in 1940).

REFERENCES

A. A. PRYGUNKOV

Before Uzbekistan was annexed to Russia, such Muslim religious schools as makatib, madrasas, and korikhons were predominant. Women generally received no education, although the daughters of the feudal aristocracy were admitted to religious schools in exceptional cases. Secular educational institutions were established after Uzbekistan’s annexation to Russia. These included Russian schools, of which six were founded before 1876: three in Tashkent, two in Samarkand, and one in Kattakurgan. The first Gymnasium for boys was founded in Tashkent in 1875, and a Gymnasium for girls was founded later. Other schools included a teachers’ seminary in Tashkent (founded 1879), the Tashkent Realschule (1893), and specialized technical schools, including an agricultural hydraulic engineering school and a railroad engineering school in Tashkent (both 1902) and a school of viticulture and wine-making in Samarkand.

A system of local Russian-language indigenous schools was established to train translators and minor officials from among the local population. To a certain extent, these schools helped reduce illiteracy among the indigenous population and introduced Russian language and culture.

After 1905 the Uzbek bourgeoisie founded schools in Bukhara and some other cities; these schools introduced new methods. Instruction in reading and writing was based on a phonetic method new to the Muslims and was conducted in the native language. However, feudal oppression and the colonizing policies of tsarism hindered the cultural development of the Uzbek people. In 1897, 98 percent of the indigenous population was illiterate. During the 1914–15 academic year, 2 to 3 percent of Uzbek boys were enrolled in the lower grades of the general-education schools. Approximately 500 students were enrolled in technical schools; there were no higher educational institutions.

The October Socialist Revolution of 1917 opened the way to education and the development of the national culture for the Uzbek people. In 1918 the Central Executive Committee of the Turkestan Republic ratified the statute On the Organization of Public Education in Turkestan Krai and adopted a decree on the introduction of universal free instruction in the native language and on the separation of church and school. During the first years of Soviet power the development of education, especially for women, was hindered by the reactionary Muslim clergy, by old customs and vestiges of the past, and by a shortage of teachers from among the local population. The other fraternal republics aided Uzbekistan in training teachers and establishing a system of schools. The University of Turkestan (since 1960 called the University of Tashkent), which played an important role in training teachers from among the Uzbek population, was founded in 1920.

A campaign to eliminate illiteracy among the adult population began in the 1920’s. Particular attention was devoted to the education of women. In 1926 the literacy rate was 11.6 percent: 15.3 percent among men and 7.3 percent among women. The corresponding figures in 1939 were 78.7 percent, 83.6 percent, and 73.3 percent, respectively. In 1928–29 the writing system for the Uzbek language was changed from the Arabic alphabet to a Latinized alphabet, which in turn was changed in 1939–40 to an alphabet based on Russian.

In 1930 the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Uzbekistan and the government of Uzbekistan adopted the resolution On the Introduction of Universal Compulsory Education for Children and Adolescents. The number of schools and of pupils and students increased during the 1930’s. In the 1937–38 academic year there were 939,000 pupils and students enrolled in the republic’s schools (1,219,000 in the 1939–40 academic year). After the war, universal compulsory seven-year education was implemented; universal compulsory eight-year education was introduced in 1959. The literacy rate in 1970 was 99.7 percent (99.8 percent among men and 99.6 percent among women). During the ninth five-year plan, as was the case for the entire USSR, the transition to universal secondary education was essentially completed in Uzbekistan.

During the years of Soviet power, an extensive system of children’s preschool institutions was established. In 1976 there were 560,000 children in 5,200 kindergartens, crèches, and crèche-kindergartens. In the 1975–76 academic year there were more than 3,803,000 pupils and students in 9,700 general-education schools of all types. There were 210,900 teachers on the staffs of the republic’s general-education day schools. Educational and cultural-educational training was also conducted in many extracurricular institutions, including 175 palaces and houses of Pioneers, 241 children’s and young people’s sports schools, and 211 music schools.

Vocational training has been greatly expanded. In the 1975–76 academic year there were 273 vocational-technical schools with 117,000 students, including 88 secondary vocational-technical schools with 43,000 students. There were 185,200 students enrolled in 187 specialized secondary schools in the 1975–76 academic year. Some 246,600 students were enrolled in 42 higher educational institutions, of which the largest were the University of Tashkent, the University of Samarkand, the Tashkent Pedagogical Institute, the Tashkent Medical Institute, and the Tashkent Agricultural Institute. Other important higher educational institutions were a polytechnic institute, an institute of the national economy, the Uzbek Institute of Physical Culture in Tashkent, and the Andizhan Pedagogical Institute of Languages. In 1976, the University of Kara-Kalpakia was founded in Nukus.

In 1975, Uzbekistan had 6,300 public libraries with 39.9 million books and journals. The largest library is the A. Navoi State Republic Library of the Uzbek SSR. As of 1975 there were 31 museums (three in 1913), among which the most important were the Tashkent Branch of the Lenin Central Museum, the Aibek State Museum of the History of the Peoples of Uzbekistan, the State Museum of the Arts of the Uzbek SSR, and the A. Navoi State Museum of Literature. Other major museums were the Republic Nature Museum in Tashkent, the Museum of the History of the Culture and Art of the Uzbek SSR in Samarkand, and oblast museums of local lore in Andizhan, Bukhara, Termez, Karshi, Namangan, and Fergana. The republic also had 3,700 clubs.

REFERENCES

Natural and technical sciences. Large irrigation systems were constructed in the Amu Darya, Syr Darya, and Zeravshan river basins by the mid-first millennium B.C. The inhabitants of the agricultural oases cultivated barley, rice, wheat, alfalfa, and cotton. They engaged in various crafts and in trade and built cities and roads. In addition to a high degree of practical knowledge in mining, metallurgy, pottery-making, weaving, jewelry-making, and construction, they had a conception of the motion of celestial bodies, a system of reckoning time, and several methods of computation. They produced a number of political, religious, and scientific writings, including the Avesta. The peoples of Middle Asia as a group took part in the formation of the cultures of many states and created and developed a rich and multifaceted culture of their own.

Middle Asia became one of the principal sources of scientific thought in the East during the ninth through 11th centuries. Astronomical observatories, Houses of Wisdom, and libraries were built in Merv, Bukhara, Urgench, Samarkand, Khodzhent, and other cities. Translations of and commentaries on the scientific legacy of ancient Greece and India were written by Middle Asian scholars. Many outstanding scholars who wrote in Arabic lived in Middle Asia (seeARABIC CULTURE). Activity in the exact and natural sciences, such as mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, physics, mineralogy, medicine, and botany, developed considerably during the ninth through 15th centuries. The work of the greatest scholars of the medieval East anticipated the results of research done in later centuries in other countries. These scholars included Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Ahmad al-Farghani, Abu Nasr al-Farabi, Abu-al-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni, Mahmud Kasgari, Abu Ali Husayn ibn Sina (Avicenna), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Kazi Zadeh al-Rumi, Jamshid al-Kashi, Ulug Beg, and Ali al-Kushchi. The Samarkand school of astronomy, which was founded by Ulug Beg in the 15th century, greatly influenced the development of astronomy and mathematics.

The period from the ninth through 15th centuries was distinguished by substantial technological advances in the construction of cities, by the improvement of pottery-making techniques, and by the extensive manufacture of stained glass and high-quality paper. Such cities in Mavera-un-Nahr and Khwarazm as Bukhara, Samarkand, Urgench, and Kiat were renowned for woven goods (cotton, wool, and silk fabrics) and for silver, copper, and gold articles and coins.

Numerous civic, religious, and engineering structures were built in the 16th and 17th centuries; these structures demonstrate the high technical and artistic level of Middle Asian architecture. Numerous handicrafts were developed in Bukhara, Samarkand, Khiva, and other cities. Iron, gold, turquoise, marble, building stone, and sulfur were mined or quarried in what is now Uzbekistan; cast iron was used, and crude petroleum was employed in military engineering.

The study of the territory of Uzbekistan by Russian travelers, staff members of the embassies of the Russian tsars in Khiva and Bukhara, and individual expeditions began in the 18th and early 19th centuries. The expeditions included those led by A. Bekovich-Cherkasskii in 1717, N. N. Murav’ev in 1819 and 1820, G. I. Danilevskii in 1842, and A. I. Butakov in 1848 and 1849.

In the second half of the 19th century, after Middle Asia was united with Russia, the territory and natural resources of the region were studied by, for example, N. A. Severtsov, P. P. Seme-nov-Tian-Shanskii, A. P. Fedchenko, 1. V. Mushketov, and A. F. Middendorf. Mushketov and G. D. Romanovskii compiled the first geologic map of Turkestan, which was published in 1884. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various programs of the Russian Geographical Society for the study of Turkestan were implemented. In accordance with these programs, the Aral Sea was investigated by L. S. Berg, and important contributions to the study of the glaciers of Turkestan were made by G. B. Leonov, N. L. Korzhenevskii, and V. G. Gorodetskii. In addition, studies were made of the fauna of Turkestan by V. F. Oshanin and N. A. Zarudnyi, of the flora by B. A. Fedchenko, O. A. Fedchenko, and V. L. Komarov, and of seismic processes by B. Ia. Korolenkov. Important surveying projects were carried out by military topographers of the Turkestan Military Topography Department, which was established in 1867. Comprehensive pedo-logical, botanical, and hydrological studies were performed by expeditions of the Department of Land Improvement and the Resettlement Administration of the Ministry of Agriculture of Russia between 1912 and 1915.

In the second half of the 19th century, the following were established in Tashkent; a weather station (1867), a statistical committee (1868), an astronomical observatory (1873), the Administration of Agriculture and State Property of Turkestan Krai (1897), the hydrometric section of the administration, the Turkestan Agricultural Experiment Station (1898), and an entomological station. In the early 20th century, the Seismological Commission of the Russian Geographical Society established seismological stations in Tashkent (1901), Samarkand (1914), Dzhizak, and Kokand.

Prior to the Great October Socialist Revolution, scientific work was carried out sporadically in Uzbekistan, primarily through the efforts of nonpaid scholars, amateurs, and various scientific societies. As many as 15 scientific societies existed in the krai, including branches of all-Russian scientific societies. The societies made substantial contributions to such fields as geology, geography, zoology, botany, economics, and medical science. In addition to Turkestan sections of the Russian Geographical Society (1896), the Russian Technical Society, and the Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology, and Ethnology (1870), the societies included the Middle Asian Scientific Society (1870), the Turkestan Agricultural Society, the Fergana Medical Society (1892), the Society of Natural Scientists and Physicians of Turkestan Krai (1908), and the Samarkand Society of Physicians (1913).

FROM THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION TO 1946. In 1920, by a decree of V. I. Lenin, a higher educational institution—Turkestan State University—was founded in Tashkent. The university, which was the first scientific institution in the Soviet East, had research institutes for soil science and geobotany, chemistry, zoology, geophysics, and other fields. Since 1960 the university has been called the V. I. Lenin University of Tashkent. Independent higher educational institutions and scientific research institutions were established on the basis of the university’s departments and laboratories; the university organized expeditions to many regions of Middle Asia.

The formation of the Uzbek SSR in 1924 opened up new opportunities for the development of science. Institutions organized in the middle and late 1920’s include the Central Board of Water Use Management of Middle Asia and an affiliated special institution for the siting and planning of water management installations (1924; now the Middle Asian Institute for the Designing of Water Works Projects, with branches in the other Middle Asian republics and Kazakhstan); the Middle Asian Division of the Geological Committee (1926); the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Cotton Growing (1929), together with five central experiment stations and a number of specialized stations in the other Middle Asian republics and southern Kazakhstan; the Middle Asian Cotton-irrigation Polytechnic Institute (1929); and the Research Institute of Sericulture (1929). Institutions established in the early 1930’s include the Middle Asian Geological Prospecting Institute (1930; now the Biruni Tashkent Polytechnic Institute), the Ulug Beg Kitab International Latitude Station (1930), the Scientific Research Institute for Hydrometeorology (1931), the Complex Research Institute of Natural Science in Kara-Kalpakia (1931), a solar engineering laboratory in Tashkent, and a number of medical institutes, such as the Tashkent and Samarkand state medical institutes, the Institute of Tropical Studies in Bukhara, and the Pharmaceutical Institute.

By 1933 there were 37 scientific research institutes and 45 scientific stations. A committee on the sciences was organized under the Central Executive Committee of the Uzbek SSR in 1932 in order to coordinate and direct scientific projects. In 1932 the Academy of Sciences of the USSR held a conference in Leningrad devoted to the productive forces of Uzbekistan. The First Middle Asian Congress of Scientific Research Institutes was held in Tashkent in 1933. In the 1930’s the scientists of Uzbekistan dealt with problems associated with the development of the national economy, public health, and education.

The minerals of the Fergana Valley and Almalyk were studied under the direction of A. E. Fersman; photosynthesis under arid conditions was studied under the direction of S. P. Kostychev. E. N. Pavlovskii directed the study of regional infectious and parasitic pathology, and L. I. Prasolov directed the study of the nitrogen cycle of soils and the effect of salinization on soil biody-namics. N. I. Vavilov directed the breeding of cotton and other plants. The following were among the Russian scientists, engineers, teachers, and physicians who went to Uzbekistan in the 1920’s and contributed greatly to the training of the first scientific specialists and the development of science in Uzbekistan: V. I. Romanovskii, S. N. Naumov, L. V. Oshanin, A. A. Semenov, A. S. Uklonskii, N. L. Korzhenevskii, D. N. Kashkarov, A. L. Brodskii, M. G. Popov, M. V. Kul’tiasov, E. P. Korovin, and I. A. Raikov.

The scientific research institutions of Uzbekistan made substantial contributions to the achievement, in the late 1920’s, of the USSR’s self-sufficiency in cotton. The foundations of Uzbekistan’s power supply were laid with the construction of the Bozsu Hydroelectric Power Plant and of hydroelectric systems in irrigation networks. The first data for making generalizations about the geology and ore content of the republic were obtained in 1936. Deposits of many minerals were discovered, and the prospects of the Almalyk area for copper mining were demonstrated. The presence of oil in the Fergana Valley and southern Uzbekistan was established. New minerals were discovered, including the vanadates of copper volborthite and calciovolborthite.

Regional geological research was carried out under the direction of A. S. Uklonskii, A. V. Korolev, and B. N. Nasledov. Projects in the field of lithology were directed by V. I. Popov, and K. P. Kalitskii directed projects in petroleum and gas geology. O. K. Lange directed hydrogeological projects. The Scientific Research Institute of Geology was established in Tashkent in 1938. In the late 1930’s, Tashkent became a center for the development of the theory of geologic formations. The Geology of the Uzbek SSR (vols. 1–3) was published between 1937 and 1939, and a composite geologic map of southeastern Middle Asia was published in 1941. Research was conducted in geophysics.

Important contributions were made in astronomy by M. F. Subbotin, B. V. Kukarkin, and N. F. Flori; in solar engineering by A. M. Titov; in mathematics by V. I. Romanovskii; in power engineering by I. Ia. Kaminskii; in organic chemistry by G. V. Lazur’evskii, A. S. Sadykov, S. N. Naumov, and I. P. Tsuker-vanik; and in silicate chemistry and technology by I. S. Kantse-pol’skii.

Irrigation systems were rebuilt, and their use was improved. Salinization and bog formation were combated. G. S. Zaitsev, A. I. Avtonomov, and S. S. Kanash contributed to the development of high-yield varieties of cotton, including fine-fiber varieties. Such botanists as E. P. Korovin and I. I. Granitov studied desert and high-altitude flora; other botanists searched for valuable vegetative raw materials. M. M. Kononova, F. Iu. Gel’-tser, and O. G. Elkina contributed to microbiology; N. V. Dani-lov and A. Iu. Iunusov, to animal and human physiology.

The Uzbekistan Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR was established in 1940. Its institutes studied deposits of nonferrous metals, carried out the geological survey of the Severnyi and Iuzhnyi Fergana canals, and compiled soil maps. In 1940 the Uzbek Geology Board conducted a hydrogeological survey of the desert-meadow areas of the Kyzylkum Desert. The first volume of The Flora of Uzbekistan was published in 1941.

During the Great Patriotic War of 1941–45, the Uzbek Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the scientific research institutes of various sectors of the economy carried out their work in collaboration with the scientific institutions of Russia, the Ukraine, and Byelorussia that had been temporarily evacuated to Uzbekistan. The Institute of Power Engineering was organized in 1941. The Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, consisting of five research institutes and several other scientific institutions, was established in 1943 on the basis of the Uzbek Branch. Scientific research concentrated on searching for new resources for industry and expanding agricultural output. A comprehensive evaluation of the Angren brown coal deposit was carried out. The extraction of tungsten ores, gold, tin, and other minerals was begun. A subterranean-water cadastre and composite hydrogeological maps of the entire territory of the republic were compiled. Preliminary scientific work was carried out for the construction of the Farkhad Hydroelectric Power Plant and the Severnyi Tashkent Irrigation Canal. A new classification of the soils of Uzbekistan was developed.

POSTWAR PERIOD. The training of national scientific specialists in many areas of science, which was aided by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, contributed to the expansion of research. Scientific schools and areas of concentrated work took shape during the 1940’s and 1950’s. Important contributions were made, for example, in mathematics by V. I. Romanovskii, T. A. Sarym-sakov, N. N. Nazarov, N. P. Romanov, and T. N. Kary-Niiazov; in petrology and metallogeny by Kh. M. Abdullaev; in petroleum geology by L. G. Zhukovskii and K. A. Sotiriadi; in the earthquake resistance of structures by M. T. Urazbaev; in electronics by S. V. Starodubtsev and L. N. Dobretsov; in power engineering by N. N. Shchedrin, Kh. F. Fazylov, G. R. Rakhimov, and M. Z. Khamudkhanov; in solar engineering by A. M. Titov; and in aeromechanics and hydromechanics by Kh. A. Rakhmatullin.

The postwar years were characterized by the further development of geology and prospecting. Deposits of copper, lead, and zinc at Almalyk, Altyn-Topkan, and elsewhere and deposits of gold and rare metals were prospected and studied. The Bukhara-Khiva Oil-Gas Region, including the Gazli deposit, was discovered. The discoverers of the Gazli deposit received the Lenin Prize in 1960.

The Institute of Structures was founded in 1947; it is now called the M. T. Urazbaev Institute of Mechanics and Earthquake Resistance of Structures. The Institute of Botany and the Institute of Zoology and Parasitology of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR were established in 1950. The Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, the Institute of Botanical Chemistry, and the Institute of Water Problems were organized in 1956. The Middle Asian Institute of Geology and Mineralogical Raw Materials, the Uzbek Branch of the All-Union Oil Institute, and the Institute of Mathematics’ Computing Center (now the Institute of Cybernetics and Computing Center of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR) were founded in 1957. The Kara-Kalpak Scientific Research Institute of Land Cultivation of the Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR was organized in 1958. The Kara-Kalpak Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR and the Institute of Geology and the Exploration of Oil and Gas Deposits of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR were founded in 1959; the institute is now part of the Ministry of Geology of the Uzbek SSR. Seismo-logical stations were established in Fergana and Namangan, and a high-altitude station for cosmic ray research was set up.

In the 1960’s and early 1970’s, special attention was given to integrated research in problems of, for example, cotton growing, irrigation, power engineering, and nonferrous metallurgy. Hydroelectric power systems with both automatic and remote control were developed, along with new dam structures, horizontal and vertical drainage systems, and an improved cotton-cultivation techniques. Important contributions to these advances, which made it possible to put into agricultural use substantial areas of, for example, the Fergana Valley and the Golodnaia, Dal’verzin, Sherabad, and Karshi steppes, were made by A. N. Askochenskii, V. V. Poslavskii, R. A. Alimov, B. D. Korzhavin, and S. T. Altunin. A Lenin Prize was awarded in 1972 for the successful solution of the problems associated with the development of the virgin lands of the Uzbek and Tadzhik parts of the Golodnaia Steppe. The training of scientific specialists, especially Uzbek specialists, in many fields of science with the aid of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR has made it possible to broaden the areas of scientific research and to establish a number of new scientific institutions.

Mathematics. The main centers for mathematics are the Institute of Mathematics of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, the V. I. Lenin University of Tashkent, and the Alisher Navoi University of Samarkand. In probability theory and mathematical statistics, a series of papers has been published by T. A. Sarymsakov and S. Kh. Sirazhdinov on limit theorems of probability theory and applications of the theory. T. A. Sarymsakov has developed a theory of topological semifields. M. S. Salakhitdi-nov, I. S. Arzhanykh, I. S. Kukles, and A. N. Filatov have investigated differential and integral equations. T. N. Kary-Niiazov has studied the history of the development of mathematics in the medieval Near and Middle East.

Physics. At the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR and at thé University of Tashkent, research has been carried out in nuclear physics and in high-energy particle physics by S. V. Starodubtsev and S. A. Azimov and in activation analysis by E. M. Lobanov and U. G. Guliamov. Research in physical electronics (U. A. Arifov), dielectric electronics, optoelectronics, and microelectronics (E. I. Adirovich) has been carried out at the Institute of Electronics (founded 1967) of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, the University of Tashkent, the Tashkent Polytechnic Institute, and the Bukhara Pedagogical Institute. Research in molecular physics, in the spectroscopy of fluids and solutions (A. K. Atakhodzhaev), and in other fields has been conducted at the University of Samarkand and the Nizami Tashkent Pedagogical Institute. Many solar devices for distilling and heating water and for other applications have been studied theoretically and developed, mainly by G. Ia. Umarov.

Astronomy. Variable stars have been studied, and the right ascensions of stars determined, at the Astronomical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, which was founded in 1966 on the basis of the Tashkent Astronomical Observatory. Observations under the programs of the All-Union Solar Survey and Time Service have been carried out by V. P. Shcheglov. A branch of the institute, the Ulug Beg International Latitude Station at Kitab, has studied the variability of the geographic latitudes of the earth’s poles; in 1974 the station, together with the Central Astronomical Observatory of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, began long-term observations associated with the study of continental drift.

Mechanics and control processes. Research in economic and engineering cybernetics, information theory, and computer technology has been carried out at the Institute of Cybernetics and Computing Center (founded 1966) of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR. V. V. Kabulov has helped develop general algorithmic methods of studying complex systems, as well as methodological principles for the creation of a republic-wide automated control system. Problems of, for example, data transmission over high-frequency power-line channels are being studied. In power engineering and automation, Kh. F. Fazylov has contributed to the theory and methods of calculation of the performance of complex electrical systems, and M. Z. Khamudkhanov has conducted research in the automation of electric drives. Work has also been done on a cadastre of renewable energy sources, on the characteristics of such sources, and on the automation and remote control of irrigation installations.

The Institute of Mechanics and Earthquake Resistance of Structures and the Tashkent Zonal Scientific Research and Design Institute for Standard and Experimental Civil Engineering (founded 1964) have investigated problems of earthquake-resistant construction, including the construction of underground structures, and soil mechanics. M. T. Urazbaev has contributed to the theory of elasticity. Kh. A. Rakhmatulin and D. F. Faizul-laev have developed a theory of the motion of multiphase media in conduits; the theory has been used in the design of pipelines and in the control of river channels. Kh. Kh. Usmankhodzhaev has contributed to the theory of machines for picking cotton.

Geology, geophysics, and geography. Geological institutes have carried out systematic mineralogical and geochemical studies of almost all the ore deposits of Uzbekistan. A. S. Uklonskii has developed a geochemical classification of minerals, and V. I. Popov has contributed to the development of the theory of geological formations. Metallogenic and petrological research has been conducted, and metallogenic and prognostic maps have been compiled. Kh. M. Abdullaev and I. Kh. Khamrabaev have studied the relationship between mineralization and magmatism.

The Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology (founded 1960) of the Ministry of Geology of the Uzbek SSR has carried out large-scale research in hydrogeology, land-reclamation hydrogeology, the study of loesses, and geodynamic processes. G. A. Mavlianov and N. A. Kenesarin have done much research on geodynamic processes. The Research and Production Hydrogeological Association of the Ministry of Geology of the Uzbek SSR was established in 1971. Scientific principles of oil and gas exploration, which have led to the discovery of the largest gas deposits in Uzbekistan, were developed at the Institute of Geology and Oil and Gas Exploration by A. M. Akramkho-dzhaev and A. G. Babaev.

The Institute of Seismology (founded 1966) of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR includes a branch in Andizhan, 11 seismological stations, and an ionospheric station. Research has been conducted in gravimetry, electrical geophysical exploration, and seismology, including the detection of foreshocks and the delineation of earthquake zones for all of Uzbekistan and for its large cities, industrial centers, and hydraulic engineering installations. The earth’s crust and upper mantle have been studied in Uzbekistan.

Methods of short-term forecasting of jet streams in the lower stratosphere over the southern part of the USSR have been developed. Research on statistical methods of weather forecasting has been conducted. Problems of modifying meteorological processes have been studied, including hail suppression.

The division of the Turan physicogeographical province into natural regions on the basis of landscapes has been completed. An agricultural evaluation of the natural conditions of Uzbekistan, Tadzhikistan, and Turkmenistan has been made in connection with the problem of the diversion of Siberian waters to the basin of the Aral Sea. Uzbekistan has been divided into geobo-tanical, soil climatic, and pasture climatic zones; the Middle Asian republics have been divided into agroclimatic zones. The rivers and lakes of Middle Asia have been studied at the University of Tashkent and the Department of Geography at the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR. Systematic glaciological research is being conducted.

Chemistry and chemical technology. At the Institute of Botanical Chemistry and the Department of Biochemistry (founded 1973) of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, A. S. Sady-kov and S. Iu. Iunusov have carried out research in botanical chemistry, primarily in alkaloid chemistry. Highly effective dry and liquid mixed fertilizers have been obtained; M. M. Nabiev developed the technology for producing them. Defoliants, herbicides, and pesticides have also been developed. Projects have been undertaken in the development and use of surface-active agents in soil aggregation. K. S. Akhmedov has conducted research on geological exploratory drilling, and Kh. U. Usmanov has studied the chemistry of cotton cellulose. I. S. Kantsepol’skii has worked on problems of producing high-quality cements. At the Scientific Research Institute for Petroleum Refining (founded 1964) of the Ministry of the Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical Industry of the USSR, A. S. Sultanov has studied the theory of synthesizing an aluminosilicate catalyst for cracking petroleum distillates.

Biological and agricultural sciences. Work in the biological and agricultural sciences has been carried on at the research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR, at the universities, and at a number of pedagogical institutes. The Institute of Botany of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR published The Flora of Uzbekistan in six volumes between 1941 and 1962 and Map of the Vegetation of Uzbekistan in 1973. The ten-volume Guide to the Plants of Middle Asia is being published; the first four volumes appeared between 1968 and 1974. An ecological classification of the vegetation of Middle Asia has been developed. D. K. Saidov has substantiated and applied in practice land reclamation methods that involve the planting of vegetation. In addition, he has developed and applied agricultural techniques that increase the productivity of desert, semidesert, and foothill pastures; methods of cultivating various plants used in industry, such as the licorice and geranium, have also been employed for this purpose. At the Central Botanical Garden of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR (founded 1943 on the basis of the botanical garden of the Middle Asian University) in Tashkent, F. N. Rusanov has helped introduce and acclimatize plants and has helped select species for local conditions. Such work has also been done at the branch of the central garden in the city of Nu-kus.

T. Z. Zakhidov has conducted an integrated study of the animal life of the deserts at the Institute of Zoology and Parasitology of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR. The ecology of venomous snakes has also been investigated at the institute, and a serpentarium has been established. Work has been done on the ichthyofauna of bodies of water; the ichthyofauna of the Aral Sea is studied at the Kara-Kalpak Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR. Recommendations have been formulated for increasing the amount of fish in bodies of water and for breeding valuable varieties of fish. The first three volumes of The Fauna of the Uzbek SSR were published between 1953 and 1961. The study of human and animal parasites has continued. Methods of controlling dangerous diseases have been developed by A. T. Tula-ganov, M. A. Sultanov, and R. A. Alimdzhanov. Biological and multiple-approach methods of combating agricultural pests have been studied. A. M. Muzafarov has formulated recommendations for the mass culture of Chlorella, Scenedesmus, and other algae as stimulants in the feeding of farm animals, including fowl and silkworms.

Biochemical and biophysical research in the chemistry of hormones, nucleic acids, proteins, and zootoxins is conducted at the Institute of Experimental Plant Biology, which was established in 1964 on the basis of the Institute of Genetics and Plant Physiology (founded 1956); such research is also carried on at the Institute of Biochemistry (founded 1967) of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR. Ia. Kh. Turakulov has investigated the biochemistry and pathologic chemistry of the thyroid gland. The Institute of Physiology (founded 1975 on the basis of the Department of Physiology) of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR directs work in physiology. Scientists at the institutes of physiology, biochemistry, and regional medicine have studied the physiological mechanisms by which individual systems of the body adapt to hot climates. A. Iu. Iunusov has studied tissue processes, and K. A. Zufarov and D. Kh. Khamidov have studied such processes at the molecular and submolecular levels. The biophysics of membranes and active ion transport have been investigated.

Fundamental work on the classification of Uzbekistan’s soils, the division of the soils into climatic zones, and soil mapping has been carried out. Irrigated soils were classified as an independent type in the 1960’s. S. N. Ryzhov has developed the concept of the level of fertility of irrigated soils. A. S. Sadykov has synthesized growth stimulants and other compounds from cotton. Kh. A. Rakhmatulin and U. A. Arifov have developed mechanical and aerochemical methods of denuding cottonseed for precision sowing.

Research in the agricultural sciences has been carried on at 19 scientific institutions. S. S. Sadykov has studied the effects of temperature and light in accelerating the maturation of cotton and increasing the cotton harvest. N. N. Nazirov has investigated the radiochemical principles of mutagenesis in cotton. A. I. Ima-maliev and S. Kh. Iuldashov have studied the physiology and technology of cultivation. New high-yield varieties of cotton that are suitable for machine picking have been bred. Five cotton strain changes have been carried out, the first in 1929 and the last in 1973. All the cotton-sowing farms of Uzbekistan have been supplied with the wilt-resistant Tashkent strains that were developed by, for example, S. M. Mirakhmedov. There have been bred 20 high-yield varieties of rice and more than 50 varieties of vegetables including melons and gourds. More than 60 varieties of fruit and berry crops and grapes have been developed at research institutes of horticulture, viticulture, and land cultivation. Highly productive varieties of the Asiatic silkworm have been obtained, and progressive methods of silkworm raising have been developed. Breeds of dairy cattle have been improved, and highly productive breeds of Karakul sheep with colored lamb pelts have been developed.

Medical-sciences. The Institute of Medical Parasitology has conducted research on the control of malaria and the guinea worm. I. K. Musabaev has contributed to the combating of typhoid fever. M. I. Slonim and N. I. Khodukin have worked on the control of kala azar. Research has also been carried out on combating infectious hepatitis and brucellosis. E. I. Atakhanov has developed methods of diagnosing diseases of the digestive tract. U. A. Aripov has studied the effect of several gossypol derivatives on immunosuppression of organ and tissue transplants, particularly kidney transplants.

A. S. SADYKOV

M. M. KHAIRULLAEV

KH. SH. INOIATOV

I. I. ISKANDEROV

A. I. ISHANOV

REFERENCES