Provençal literature

literature that was and is written in Provençal and that developed in Provence. The first texts to have come down to us are a fragment of the long poem Boethius (c. 1000) and the Song of St. Fides of Agen (mid-11th century). The chivalrous tale was represented by a few works, including Jaufré and Flamenca (13th century). The poetry of the troubadours emerged in the late 11th century, reaching its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries. Troubadour poetry had its source in folk literature and was also influenced by Latin poetry and Hispano-Arabic literature. The lyric poetry of the troubadours is secular both in origin and content. While Jaufré Rudel (mid-12th century) favored the theme of loving from afar (amor de lonh), other poets, such as William IX, Count of Poitiers (1071–1127) and Marcabrun (wrote 1135–50), were more open in expressing their emotions. Sensual love was the theme of Raimbaut de Vaqueyras (wrote 1190–1207) and Arnaut de Ma-reuil (second half of the 12th century); the bard of tender love was Bernart de Ventadour (wrote 1150–70).

Many poets described the internecine feudal wars and the Crusades, including Bertran de Born (c. 1140–1215). Antipapal themes permeate the work of Guilhem Figueira (1215-c. 1250). Peire Cardenal (c. 1210-late 13th century) was a noted satirist who mocked the church. Among the troubadours were those who favored formal experimentation and even an encoded style (trobar clus), such as Arnaut Daniel (wrote 1180–1200), Raimbaut d’Orange (12th century), and Guiraut Riquier (1254–92), and those who favored clarity (trobar leu), including Giraut de Borneil (c. 1165–1200). After the Albigensian Crusades of 1209–29, Provençal culture lost its unity and the work of the troubadours went into decline.

In the 16th century, Provençal literature developed primarily in Gascony and produced some significant poets, whose work reflects the influence of Protestantism: P. de Garros (c. 1526–83), A. Gaillard (c. 1530-after 1592), and L. Belland de la Bellaudière (1532–88). Provençal literature later became increasingly divided into narrow dialectal literatures. The most original writer of this period was P. Goudelin, or Goudouli (1579–1649). The influence of classicism on Provençal literature was slight. Burlesque verse, satire, and nature lyrics developed. J.-B. Favre (1727–83) stands out among 18th-century poets.

A new and significant period in Provençal literature began in connection with a cultural upsurge in the Midi, an increase in nationalistic feelings, and the appearance of major creative individual talents, including J. Jasmin (1798–1864), J. Rou-manille (1818–91), T. Aubanel (1829–86), and F. Mistral (1830–1914). They proclaimed the felibrean movement and strove to develop a unified literary language and to free Provençal literature from dialectal divisions. The felibrean poets, who included F. Gras (1844–1901), created remarkable works of lyric poetry and prose. The movement ceased to exist in the early 20th century.

In the 20th century, most Provençal writers have written in both French and Provençal. Interesting literature has been produced by the Limousin school; J.-B. Chèze (1870–1935) and P.-L. Grenier (1879–1954) are among the poets who have attempted to revive the literary traditions of the past. The major poet of the Roussillon school was J.-S. Pons (1886–1962).

Since World War II, attempts have been made to unite the literary forces of Provence. New journals have appeared, and many writers have become specialists in the history of Provençal literature, including R. Nelli (born 1908) and C. Camproux (born 1908). Outstanding writers include the poets M. Rouquette (born 1908), M. Allier (born 1912), P. Bec (born 1921), B. Manciet (born 1923), S. Bec (born 1933), and Y. Rouquette (born 1936), the prose writer J. Boudou (born 1920), and the poet, prose writer, and scholar, R. Lafont (born 1923).