Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic: Ukraina

The Ukrainian SSR was established on Dec. 25,1917. With the formation of the USSR, it joined the USSR as a Union republic on Dec. 30,1922. Situated in the southwestern part of the European USSR, the Ukraine is bounded on the west and southwest by the socialist countries of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Rumania. In the north it borders on the Byelorussian SSR, in the east and southeast on the RSFSR, in the southwest on the Moldavian SSR, and in the south on the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. With an area of 603,700 sq km and a population of 49.1 million (Jan. 1,1976), the Ukraine is the third largest Union republic, after the RSFSR and the Kazakh SSR, and the second most populous, after the RSFSR. Its capital is Kiev.

The Ukrainian SSR is divided (1976) into 25 oblasts and 477 raions and has 394 cities and 892 urban-type settlements (see Table 1 on page 560). It includes three major economic regions: the Donets-Dnieper, the Southwestern, and the Southern.

The Ukrainian SSR is a socialist state of the whole people, expressing the will and interests of the workers, peasants, and intelligentsia, the working people of all nationalities of the republic; a Union soviet socialist republic. Its present constitution was adopted by the Extraordinary Seventh Session of the Ninth Convocation of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR on Apr. 20, 1978. The highest body of state power is the unicameral Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR, which comprises 650 deputies elected for five-year terms by equally populated precincts. Between sessions of the Supreme Soviet, the highest governing body is the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR. The Supreme Soviet forms the republic’s government—the Council of Ministers—and enacts legislation. The local governing bodies in oblasts, raions, cities, city districts, settlements, and villages are the respective soviets of people’s deputies, whose members are popularly elected for 2½ year terms. The Ukraine sends 32 deputies to the Soviet of Nationalities of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

The highest court of the Ukraine is the Supreme Court of the republic, elected by the republic’s Supreme Soviet for a five-year term. The Supreme Court consists of a civil division, a criminal division, and a presidium. The court also sits as a plenum. The procurator of the Ukrainian SSR is appointed by the procurator-general of the USSR for a term of five years.

The diversity of the republic’s natural features results from its location in the southwestern USSR, a region that encompasses a subzone of mixed forests, a forest-steppe zone, and a steppe zone, as well as the Ukrainian Carpathians and the Crimean Mountains. The Ukraine stretches for more than 1,300 km from the Carpathians in the west to the Central Russian Upland in the east and for almost 900 km from the Pripiat’ River in the north to the coasts of the Black and Azov seas in the south.

Coasts. The predominantly low-lying Black Sea coast is dissected by the Tendra, Dzharylgach, Karkinit, and Kalamit bays and by the Dnestr, Khadzhibei, Kuial’nik, Tiligul’, Bug, and Dnieper estuaries. The southern coast of the Crimean Peninsula is steep and mountainous. The flat northern coast of the Sea of Azov is fringed by spits (Obitochnaia, Berdiansk); along the west coast the Arabat Tongue separates the sea from the salt-water Si-vash Bay.

Terrain. Most of the Ukraine lies on the southwestern edge of the East European Plain. Its topography of plains and hills gives way to higher elevations only in the Crimean Mountains in the south and in the Ukrainian Carpathians in the west. The Ukrainian part of the East European Plain has high and low sections corresponding to uplifts and subsidences of the platform’s crystalline basement. The main uplifts are the Volyn’ and Podol’e uplands, which stretch from northwest to southeast, from the upper course of the Bug River and the upper left tributaries of the Dnestr to the valley of the Iuzhnyi Bug. The highest point in the uplands is Mount Kamula (471 m). Farther to the east, between the Iuzhnyi Bug and the Dnieper, lies the Dnieper Upland, rising to 323 m. The Azov Upland, with a maximum elevation of 324 m on Mount Bel’mak-Mogila, forms a narrow band in the southeast along the left bank of the Dnieper. The northeastern part of the Azov Upland abuts on the Donets Ridge, whose highest point is Mount Mogila-Mechetnaia (367 m). On the ridge are many rock waste piles, quarries, and other landscape forms created by man’s economic activity. The spurs of the Central Russian Upland extend into the Ukraine from the northeast. Each of the uplands is deeply and densely dissected by a valley and a network of ravines and gullies.

The northern Ukraine is occupied by the southern part of the Poles’e Lowland, lying at an elevation of 150–200 m. The flat surface of the lowland is composed of ancient fluvioglacial and alluvial deposits, complicated in places by moraine hills, aeolian landforms, or karst.

To the southeast the Poles’e gradually merges with the Dnieper Lowland, stretching along the left bank of the middle Dnieper. In the western part of the lowland there are terraces above the floodplain. The eastern part of the lowland is a plain dissected by ravines, gullies, and the asymmetric valleys of the Dnieper’s left tributaries.

The southern part of the Ukraine is occupied by the Black Sea Lowland, a plain sloping slightly to the south. The lowland has broad valleys and flat watersheds with many pods and shallow depressions formed by the sinking of loess deposits.

With the exception of the Kerch’ Peninsula, which has a hilly terrain and mud volcanoes, the northern Crimea is a continuation of the Black Sea Lowland. To the south the lowland gives way to the Crimean Mountains, whose highest ridge, the Glavnyi (or Iuzhnyi) Ridge, rises to 1,545 m at Mount Roman-Kosh. The Crimean Mountains have flat summits, called iaily, and extensively developed karst landforms.

The highest mountains in the republic, the Ukrainian Carpathians in the west, are a narrow and relatively low segment of the Eastern Carpathians. From 60 km to 100 km wide, the Ukrainian Carpathians consist of several parallel ranges stretching 270 km from the northwest to the southeast. The highest peak is Mount Goverla (2,061 m). The alluvial Transcarpathian Lowland, with elevations of 100–120 m, stretches along the southwestern foothills of the Ukrainian Carpathians.

Geological structure and mineral resources The Ukraine occupies the southwestern part of the Eastern European Platform, fringed by the folded structures of the Carpathians and the Crimea. The platform encompasses the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield, the Volyn’-Podol’e Plate, the L’vov Depression, the Donets Aulakogene, the Dnieper-Donets Depression, and the Black Sea Coastal Depression. The dominant structural element is the Ukrainian Crystalline Massif in the central part of the republic, composed of dislocated Archean and Proterozoic rocks 3.5–1.2 billion years old. These rocks dip gently toward the Carpathians and merge with the Volyn’-Podol’e Plate, composed of Riphean, Vendian, and Paleozoic rocks.

The central part of the Donets Aulakogene (Donets Coal Basin) is composed of Carboniferous coal-bearing formations up to 15 km thick and Permian salt-bearing strata lying close to the surface. There are outcrops of Triassic and Jurassic deposits in the northwestern part of the basin and of Cretaceous and Paleo-gene-Neogene rocks along the edges of the basin. These rocks form folds that incline in the northwest toward the Dnieper-Donets Depression, which is filled with a stratum of dislocated Paleozoic salt-bearing and coal-bearing formations and a slightly deformed stratum of Mesozoic-Cenozoic rocks. In the south the Ukrainian Shield borders on the Black Sea Coastal Depression, which is filled by gently dipping Cretaceous and Paleogene-Neo-gene sediments.

The mountain structures of the southern Ukraine—the Crimean Mountains and part of the Eastern Carpathians—belong to the Alpide Géosynclinal Region. The Crimean Mountains are a huge folded anticlinal uplift composed of Triassic and Jurassic flysch rocks and Cretaceous and Tertiary sandy-clay and carbonaceous strata. The Ukrainian Carpathians include the Ciscarpa-thian Foredeep, the folded region of the Carpathians (a flysch and interior anticlinal zone), and the Transcarpathian Interior Trough. In the folded region there are outcrops of Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks covered by Mesozoic sediments and Cretaceous and Paleogene flysch. The Ciscarpathian and Transcarpathian depressions have Neogene formations.

The Ukraine has large ore and coal basins and numerous lignite deposits. The ore and coal basins are the Krivoi Rog Iron Ore Basin, the Kerch’ Iron Ore Basin, the Nikopol’ Manganese Ore Basin, the Donets Coal Basin, and the L’vov-Volyn’ Coal Basin. The Ukraine’s gas and oil deposits are associated mainly with the Paleozoic sediments of the Dnieper-Donets Depression (Sumy, Poltava, Kharkov, and Chernigov oblasts) and with the Paleogene-Neogene sediments of the Ciscarpathian Depression (Borislav, Dashava). The largest such deposits are the Zapadnaia Krestishchenka and Shebelinka deposits in Kharkov Oblast.

The Nikitovka mercury deposit is in the Donets Basin. There are deposits of titaniun ore at Irshansk and Stremigorod, bauxite at Smela and Vysokopol’e, nepheline at Zhdanov, alunite at Ber-egovo and Began’skaia, and kaolin at Glukhov and Turbov. Salt deposits are found in the Permian sediments of the Donets Basin (Artemovsk) and in the Neogene sediments of the Transcarpathian Depression (Solotvina). Deposits of potassium salts occur at Kalush and Stebnik in Ciscarpathia. The Ukraine has many deposits of nonmetallic minerals, including granite, gabbro, labra-dorite (mainly in Zhitomir Oblast), flux limestone (Elenovka), Dinas quartzite, marble, graphite, chalk, and glass and molding sand.

The Ukraine is rich in therapeutic mineral springs, some of which are world famous, such as the hydrocarbonate, calcium, and magnesium springs at Truskavets. Also well known are the hydrogen sulfide springs of Velikii Luben’ and Nemirov in L’vov Oblast. There are many carbonic-acid springs in Transcarpathia (Poliana, Kvasova, Luzhana, and Ploskoe), and radioactive springs are found at Khmel’nik in Vinnitsa Oblast and near Miro-novka in Kiev Oblast. The lakes and limans along the Black and Azov seas are noted for their therapeutic mud.

Climate. The Ukraine has a moderate, predominantly continental climate that is considerably warmer and milder than that of the adjoining eastern oblasts of the RSFSR. The climate becomes more continental as one moves from west to east. From north to south, there is an increase in the difference between summer and winter temperatures and a decrease in the thickness and duration of the snow cover. The amount of precipitation and relative humidity also diminishes from north to south. The mean January temperature ranges from – 7° or – 8°C in the northeast to 2°-4°C on the southern Crimean coast. The mean July temperature is 18°-19°C in the northwest and 23°-24°C in the southeast. The frostless period, 150–160 days in the north, lasts up to 200–210 days in the south and 270 days on the southern Crimean coast.

The winds change with the seasons. In winter, moist westerly winds prevail in the northern half of the republic and dry and cold northeasterly and easterly winds in the southern half. Northwesterly winds prevail in the summer, although easterly and southeasterly winds, sometimes dry, are also frequent in the southern half of the republic. The annual precipitation is 600–700 mm in the northwest, 300 mm in the southeast, 1,000–1,200 mm in the Crimean Mountains, and 1,200–1,600 mm in the Ukrainian Carpathians. Over most of the republic the maximum precipitation occurs in spring and summer. The steppe zone in the south receives insufficient moisture, with periods of drought occurring in some years.

Rivers and lakes. The river network, totaling some 170,000 km, is densest in the Ukrainian Carpathians, on the Donets Ridge, and in the western Poles’e. Of the 22,523 rivers that exceed 4 km, 117 are 100 km or longer. Most of the rivers belong to the basin of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov; only about 4 percent of the republic’s area is drained into the Baltic Sea. The principal waterway is the Dnieper and its tributaries, among them the Pripiat’, Desna, Teterev, Ros’, Sula, Psel, and Vorskla. The Dnieper crosses the Ukraine from north to south, dividing it into the Right-bank and the Left-bank Ukraine. Its basin occupies the northern central Ukraine, or about 50 percent of the republic’s territory. The southwestern slopes of the Central Russian Upland and the northern slopes of the Donets Ridge are drained by the Severskii Donets, a right tributary of the Don. Small rivers flow down the southern slopes of the Donets Ridge into the Azov Sea. The rivers of the western and southwestern Ukraine belong to the basin of the Iuzhnyi Bug and the Dnestr. Transcarpathia is watered by the upper course of the Tisa River, a left tributary of the Danube. The Prut River rises in Chernovtsy Oblast. The lower course of the Danube flows in the extreme southwest, along the Rumanian border.

All but the largest rivers of the southern Ukrainian steppe dry up for part of the summer. There are no permanent rivers along the lower left bank of the Dnieper, west of the Molochnaia River. The rivers of the plains are fed mainly by snowmelt (50–80 percent) and those of the mountains by rainwater. The plains rivers are markedly high in spring and shallow in summer; there is some autumn flooding, followed by winter low water. The annual discharge from 1 sq km averages 1–4 liters per sec. Most of the rivers are icebound in winter for an average of two to 3V2 months, although the ice sometimes melts during long winter thaws. The water resources of the Ukrainian SSR, including water derived from the Byelorussian SSR and the RSFSR, amount to roughly 95 billion cu m, including 3.2 billion cu m of groundwater. The large rivers are used for shipping. Hydroelectric power plants have been built on many rivers, including the Dnieper, Dnestr, and Iuzhnyi Bug.

The Severskii Donets-Donbas Canal and the Dnieper-Krivoi Rog Canal supply water to industrial enterprises and cities. The Dnieper-Donbas Canal, under construction in 1976, will serve the same purpose. The first section of the North Crimean Irrigation Canal has been put into operation.

The Ukraine has more than 7,000 lakes (0.1 sq km or larger) covering more than 2,000 sq km. Many of the lakes are found on the floodplains of the Danube (Lakes Ialpug and Katlabukh), the Dnieper, the Desna, and the Pripiat’. Along the coast of the Black and Azov seas are Lakes Sasyk, Shagany, and Alibei and the Kuial’ and Khadzhibei liman lakes. In the Volyn’ Poles’e there are many karst lakes, of which the largest are Lakes Svitiaz-skoe and Pulemetskoe. The largest lake in the Ukrainian Carpathians is Lake Sinevir. Of the republic’s more than 23,000 artificial bodies of water, the largest are the Kremenchug Reservoir (covering 2,250 sq km), the Kakhovka Reservoir (2,155 sq km), the Kiev Reservoir (922 sq km), and the Dneprodzerzhinsk Reservoir (567 sq km).

Soils. The soil cover of the plains is divided into distinct zones. In the north are various types of soddy-podzolic soil, which cover about 70 percent of the Ukrainian Poles’e. Meadow-bog and peat-bog soils are also common on the northern plains. The forest steppe has various types of gray forest soils and podzolized and typical chernozems with a humus content of 4–6 percent. Chernozems extend over more than half of the forest steppe. Characteristic of the steppe zone are ordinary and southern chernozems, and the seacoast has dark chestnut soils with a humus content of 3.5–5 percent. The steppe soils require irrigation, especially in the south. In the Ukrainian Carpathians, the soddy-podzolic soils of Ciscarpathia give way to podzolized brown forest soils in the beech-forest belt, which in turn are succeeded by mountain-meadow and mountain-peat soils in the poloniny (alpine meadows). Brown forest soils and mountain-meadow soils occur widely in the Crimean Mountains, and red-brown and cin-namonic soils are commonly found on the southern Crimean coast.

Flora. Some 16,000 plant species have been identified in the Ukraine. On the plains the vegetative cover shows zonation. The northern part of the republic lies within the mixed-forest zone, and forests occupy about one-third of this area. Woods of oak-pine, hornbeam-oak-pine, and oak-hornbeam are widespread, as are pine tracts. The underbrush includes nut trees, bilberries, and cowberries. Most of the Poles’e is covered with meadows and low grassy moors; high sphagnum bogs are found in the northwest.

In the forest-steppe zone, forests cover about 11 percent of the area, chiefly the more rugged watersheds. There are deciduous forests of oak, beech, hornbeam, linden, ash, and maple; pine forests grow on the sandy terraces of river valleys. The republic’s forest areas total 9,990,000 hectares (ha), of which 8,457,000 ha are densely forested. In 1973 the timber reserves amounted to 968,400,000 cu m. Steppe vegetation occurs only in places in the flat parts of the watersheds. Most of the steppe has been plowed up and planted to crops. Forb-feather grass and wormwood-sheep’s fescue steppes are found only in preserves.

The slopes of the Crimean Mountains are covered with oak, beech, and pine forests, and the iaily (flat summits) are clothed with mountain-steppe vegetation. The southern Crimean coast has oak and juniper forests with an admixture of Mediterranean deciduous and evergreen vegetation, including strawberry trees, wild pistachios, and butcher’s-brooms. To elevations of 500–600 m the slopes of the Ukrainian Carpathians are covered with deciduous forests of oak, hornbeam, maple, and linden; above these grow beech forests with an admixture of spruce and fir. The higher, flat parts of the Carpathians are clothed with shrub thickets and spruce and pine forests that yield to alpine meadows.

Fauna. The Poles’e forests are inhabited by bears, elk, roe deer, wild boars, wolves, foxes, lynx, badgers, squirrels, and dormice (three species). Common birds include black grouse, hazel hens, capercaillies, titmice, woodpeckers, and orioles. In the forest-steppe zone are found deer, wild boars, wolves, marten, polecats, susliks, hamsters, hedgehogs, and such birds as the Hungarian partridge, magpie, and oriole. Typical steppe animals include susliks (spotted, small, and European), jerboas, hamsters, mice, several kinds of larks, and quail. Brown hares are common everywhere. Bears, wild boars, lynx, and European wildcats are encountered in the Carpathians, and the forests of the Crimean Mountains and the Carpathians contain European and roe deer. White storks are found near rural settlements. The republic’s rivers and lakes abound in catfish, perch, pike, ide, crucian carp, and carp. Mackerel and mullet are caught in the Black Sea, and herring, anchovy, and flounder in the Sea of Azov.

Preserves. A large number of state preserves have been established for the conservation, rational use, restoration, and increase of the republic’s natural resources, flora, and fauna. In 1975 there were nine preserves, occupying 126,700 hectares. In the steppe zone are the Askaniia-Nova Preserve in Kherson Oblast, the Black Sea Preserve in Kherson, Nikolaev, and Odessa oblasts, the Ukrainian Steppe Preserve in Donetsk, Za-porózh’e, and Sumy oblasts, and the Lugansk Preserve in Voroshilovgrad Oblast. In addition to the steppe preserves, there are the Kanev Preserve (Cherkassy Oblast) in the forest-steppe zone, the Poles’e Preserve (Zhitomir Oblast) in the mixed-forest zone, the Carpathian Preserve in the Ukrainian Carpathians, and the Yalta Mountain Forest Preserve and the Cape Mart’ian Preserve in the Crimea. Also important are the Azov-Sivash (Kherson Oblast) and Crimean forest and game reserves and the Dnieper-Teterev and Zalesskoe forest and game reserves.

Natural regions. In the mixed-forest subzone, which accounts for 20 percent of the Ukraine’s area, lies the Ukrainian Poles’e. The southern boundary of the Poles’e runs along a line of towns that includes Rava-Russkaia, L’vov, Kremenets, Shepetovka, Zhitomir, Kiev, Nezhin, Baturin, Krolovets, and Glukhov. The area has chiefly poles’e landscapes, marked by a moderately warm and humid climate and sandy plains covered with oak and pine forests (about one-third of the area) intermingled with meadows and bogs. The Ukrainian Poles’e is divided into the Western Poles’e, comprising the Volyn’, Zhitomir, and Kiev poles’ia, and the Eastern Poles’e, composed of the Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk poles’ia.

The central Ukraine lies within the forest-steppe zone, which occupies about 35 percent of the Ukraine’s territory. The area is a dissected plain in which chernozems and gray forest soils predominate. Deciduous forests alternate with large stretches of plowland. In terms of natural conditions, the forest-steppe zone is divided into the Volyn’-Podol’e, Dnieper, and Left-bank forest-steppe subzones.

The steppe zone, covering 40 percent of the Ukraine, stretches southward along a line marked by the towns of Anan’ev, Dobro-velichkovka, Znamenka, Kremenchug, Krasnograd, Zmiev, and Volchansk as far as the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, and the foothills of the Crimea. The zone has a flat surface dissected by valleys, gullies, and ravines. The soils are predominantly chernozems. Some three-fourths of the area is under cultivation, and large areas are irrigated. The zone is divided into a northern steppe, encompassing the spurs of the Podol’e, Dnieper, and Azov uplands and of the Donets Ridge and the southern part of the Dnieper Lowland, and a southern steppe, called the Black Sea Steppe.

The Ukrainian Carpathians are characterized by altitude zona-tion of landscape. The piedmont zone of mixed forests and meadows gives way at higher elevations to a mountain-forest zone with beech, oak, hornbeam, spruce, and fir forests, which in turn are replaced by a subalpine zone of shrubs and mountain meadows.

The slopes of the Crimean Mountains have forest landscapes dominated by oak, beech, and Crimean pine, as well as mountain meadows. Along the southern coast of the Crimea are found Mediterranean subtropical landscapes.

REFERENCES

A. M. MARINICH and G. I. KALIAEV (geological structure and mineral resources)

Ukrainians make up the bulk of the republic’s population. At the time of the 1970 census the population of the Ukraine included 35,283,900 Ukrainians, 9,126,300 Russians, 777,100 Jews, 385,800 Byelorussians, 295,100 Poles, 265,900 Moldavians, 234,400 Bulgarians, 157,700 Hungarians, 112,100 Rumanians, 106,900 Greeks, 76,200 Tatars, 33,400 Armenians, 30,100 Gypsies, and 26,500 Gagauz.

The population of the Ukraine grew by 39.4 percent from 1913 to 1975. Between 1940 and 1975 it increased by 18.7 percent, despite the enormous losses in the Great Patriotic War (see Table 2).

Between 1950 and 1975 the population increased by almost 13.9 million, chiefly through natural increase and migration. In terms of natural increase, the Ukraine lags behind many Union republics; in 1975 its birthrate was 5.1 per 1,000 inhabitants, as compared to the USSR’s average of 8.8. Nevertheless, the Ukraine is one of the most densely populated Union republics. With an average population density of 81.3 persons per sq km on Jan. 1,1976, it holds third place in the country, after the Moldavian and Armenian SSR’s. The most densely settled areas are the highly developed industrial oblasts: 194.0 persons per sq km in Donetsk Oblast, 111.9 in Dnepropetrovsk Oblast, 105.6 in Voroshilovgrad Oblast, 134.5 in Kiev Oblast, and 115.5 in L’vov Oblast. The population density is also high in the forest-steppe regions of Ivano-Frankovsk, Ternopol’, and Chernovtsy oblasts, where rural areas are densely settled. The more sparsely settled areas are the Poles’e (38–50 persons per sq km), the Ukrainian Carpathians, and Kherson, Nikolaev, Chernigov, and Volyn’ oblasts.

In 1975 the republic’s work force totaled 18.4 million persons, of whom 6,602,000 were employed in industry, 1,854,000 in construction, 1,401,000 in agriculture and forestry, and 1,976,000 in transportation and communications. Women account for 52 percent of the work force, including 47 percent of the industrial workers, 83 percent of those employed in public health, 73 percent of the education personnel, and 77 percent of those working in trade, material and technical supply, procurement, and the food service industry.

The far-reaching social and economic transformations that have taken place in the republic have been accompanied by a change in the ratio of urban to rural inhabitants. The urban population increased from 12.8 million in 1950 to 29.4 million in 1976. The proportion of urban dwellers is high in the industrial oblasts: 89 percent in Donetsk Oblast, 84.7 percent in Voroshilovgrad Oblast, and 80.1 percent in Dnepropetrovsk Oblast. The largest cities are Kiev (2,013,000 inhabitants in 1976), Kharkov (1,385,000), Odessa (1,023,000), Dnepropetrovsk (976,000), Donetsk (967,000), Zaporozh’e (760,000), Krivoi Rog (634,000), and L’vov (629,000). Thirty-six cities have populations of 100,000 to 500,000, including Zhdanov (467,000), Voroshilovgrad (439,000), Makeevka (437,000), Nikolaev (436,000), Gorlovka (342,000), Kherson (315,000), Sevastopol’ (290,000), Vinnitsa (288,000), and Simferopol’ (286,000). Among the cities that were founded during the period of socialist construction are Severodonetsk, Novaia Kakhovka, Novovolynsk, Vatutino, and Novyi Rozdol.

M. M. PALAMARCHUK

Primitive communal system (to the eighth century A.D.). The earliest traces of human habitation, dating from the Lower Paleolithic, have been discovered at Kiik-Koba in the southern Crimea, at the Amvrosievka site in the Azov region, at Luka-Vrublevetskaia along the middle Dnestr, at the Zhitomir site in Volyn’, and at the Kruglik site along the Dnieper above the rapids. During the Middle Paleolithic, which lasted roughly from 100,000 to 35,000 years ago, much of the Ukraine was settled by people of the Mousterian culture. Sites from this period include Chokurcha and Starosel’e in the Crimea, Kodak in the Dnieper Valley above the rapids, and Molodova I along the middle Dnestr. By the Late Paleolithic (circa 35,000 to 10,000 years ago) the entire Ukraine was inhabited, as evidenced by the Molodova V site on the Dnestr, sites in the basins of the Teterev and Goryn’ rivers, the Kirillovsk site in the Kiev area, the Mezin site and Pushkari on the Desna, and the Gontsy site in Poltava Oblast. The Paleolithic inhabitants of the Ukraine were hunters and gatherers. A matriarchal clan system evolved in this period.

During the Mesolithic, which lasted roughly from the tenth to the seventh millennium B.C., fishing developed and the bow came into use. Mesolithic sites include Tash-Air I, Murzak-Koba, Zamil’-Koba I and II, and Fat’ma-Koba, all in the Crimea, and Grebeniki on the lower Dnestr. The first tribal organizations emerged at this time, to be further developed in the Neolithic between the sixth and fourth millennia B.C. Many Neolithic remains have been discovered throughout the Ukraine, among them the Mariupol’ burial ground and the Kamennaia Mogila.

Farming and livestock raising flourished during the Aeneolithic, especially among the tribes of the Tripol’e culture, and during the Bronze Age, which lasted from the fourth to the early first millennium B.C.

During the third and second millennia B.C. the steppes and part of the forest-steppe region along the left bank of the Dnieper were settled by farming and livestock-raising tribes of the Pit-grave (Iamnaia) culture (Mikhailovka Settlement), who were succeeded by tribes of the Catacomb culture, the Timber-frame (Srubnaia) culture, and other Bronze Age cultures. These tribes bartered with neighboring tribes and with tribes of the Caucasus and the Mediterranean. The clan and tribal elite possessed considerable wealth. Sedentary farming and livestock-raising tribes of the Corded-ware culture lived along the right bank of the Dnieper in the Poles’e and parts of the forest-steppe region. Several tribal confederations were founded along the right bank of the Dnieper in the mid-second millennium B.C., one of them by tribes of the Komarovo culture. Cimmerian tribes inhabited the steppes along the Bug and Dnieper in the late second and early first millennia B.C.

In the first centuries of the first millennium B.C. the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age. The earliest iron objects were made by tribes of the Chernoles culture, who lived in the forest steppe between the Dnieper and the Dnestr. Nomadic Scythian tribes migrated to the Black Sea steppes from Asia in the seventh century B.C. By the mid-first millennium B.C. primitive communal relations were on the decline among the Scythians, and the first states were being founded. A federation of Scythian tribes arose under the leadership of King Atei in the fourth century B.C. From the seventh to the third century B.C. the forest-steppe regions of the Ukraine were inhabited by indigenous farming and livestock-raising tribes descended from the tribes of the Chernoles culture. Some scholars maintain that the tribes living along the right bank of the middle Dnieper were the direct ancestors of the East Slavs. Remains of these tribes include the Nemirov and Bel’sk gorodishcha (sites of fortified settlements).

Between the seventh and fifth centuries B.C. the Northern Black Sea Coast was settled by Greeks, who founded slaveholding city-states, of which the largest were Olbia, Tyras, Chersonesus Taurica, and Panticapaeum, all major centers of farming, fishing, crafts, and trade. The Bosporan state, with Panticapaeum as its capital, arose on the Kerch’ Peninsula in the fifth century B.C. In the second century B.C. the steppe regions of the Ukraine were settled by Sarmatian tribes from the Ural and Volga steppes.

During the period around the turn of the Common Era, the forest steppes and some of the forests were inhabited by tribes of the Zarubintsy culture, and from the second to the fifth century A.D. these regions, as well as part of the steppe area, were populated by tribes of the Cherniakhov culture, some of them Slavic tribes. These tribes engaged in farming, livestock raising, and crafts and traded with neighboring tribes, the Greek cities of the Northern Black Sea Coast, and the Roman provinces on the Danube.

In the third to sixth centuries A.D., the Northern Black Sea Coast was invaded by numerous tribes and peoples, among them Goths, Huns, and Avars, caught up in the Great Migration of Peoples. Between the fourth and seventh centuries the middle Dnieper region was occupied by an alliance of Slavic tribes initially called Antes and later Rus or Ros. Subsequently, the term “Rus’” was applied to all East Slavs.

Formation and development of feudal relations; the Old Russian state (eighth to 11th centuries). The growth of farming, livestock raising, and crafts among the East Slavs led to the breakup of the primitive communal system and to the emergence of feudal relations. The first states to arise were principalities. By the eighth and ninth centuries Slavic tribes inhabited a large part of Eastern Europe. In the Ukraine lived the tribal groups known as Poliane (middle Dnieper region), Severiane (basins of the Desna, Seim, and Sula rivers), Drevliane (Dnieper Poles’e), White Croats (Carpathians and the Dnestr basin), Dulebs, also known as Vo-lynians or Bugians (along the Zapadnyi Bug and Pripiat’ rivers), Ulichi (between the Iuzhnyi Bug and Dnestr rivers), and the Tivertsy (between the Dnestr, Prut, and Danube rivers).

In the eighth and ninth centuries slash-and-burn farming was gradually replaced by plow farming. Individual households became common, serving as the basis for village communes, and handicrafts flourished. Chronicle entries from the ninth century mention more than 20 East Slavic cities, among them Kiev, Chernigov, Pereiaslavl’, Belgorod, Vyshgorod, and Cherven’, all of them intertribal centers of trade and handicrafts. The waterway “from the Varangians to the Greeks, ” linking the Baltic and Black seas, became important from the ninth century. The feudal mode of production became firmly established among the Slavs in the ninth century. Although the bulk of the population was made up of dependent and exploited peasants (smerdy), indentured laborers (zakupy), slaves {kholopy), and the urban poor, a free peasant class was also emerging. The ruling class was composed of princes, boyars, and the higher clergy.

An inevitable result of the formation of classes was the rise of Kievan Rus’, a feudal state uniting several East Slavic tribal unions. The first historically known Old Russian princes were Askol’d and Dir. Another early prince, Oleg (reigned 879 to 912), was initially the ruler of Novgorod. Kievan Rus’ reached its zenith in the late tenth century and the first half of the 11th century. The Old Russian state was greatly strengthened by the introduction in 988–89 of Christianity in the form of Byzantine Orthodoxy, which replaced paganism. Kiev became the seat of the metropolitans, and the Kiev-Pecherskaia Laura (monastery) was founded in 1051. After the death of Iaroslav the Wise (reigned 1019–54) began the gradual fragmentation of Old Rus’. More than 60 new cities were founded in Rus’ in the 11th century and some 200 in the 12th century, among them Galich and Novgo-rod-Severskii. The growth of cities was linked to the development of handicrafts. The expansion of productive forces intensified the class differentiation and exacerbated the class struggle, as manifested in the Kiev uprisings of 1068–69 and 1113.

Kievan Rus’ had a highly developed and distinctive culture. The city of Kiev was adorned with such architectural masterpieces as the Desiatinnaia Church (Church of Tithes, 989–996), the Cathedral of St. Sophia (1037), the Golden Gate (1037), and the Uspenskii Cathedral (Cathedral of the Dormition) of the Kiev-Pecherskaia Laura (1073–78). Another impressive edifice was the Cathedral of Our Savior in Chernigov, begun around 1036. Among the oldest surviving written works from the Kievan period are the Ostromir Gospel, the Primary Chronicle, Sviato-slav’s Miscellany, Metropolitan Ilarion’s Discourse on Law and Grace, and the Russkaia Pravda law code. The literature of Kievan Rus’ and the rich oral epic tradition paved the way for the Tale of Igor’s Campaign, composed in the late 12th century.

The establishment of the Old Russian state was an important event in European history inasmuch as the unification of the East Slavic lands promoted their economic and political development. The Old Russian nation, which evolved in the tenth century, became the nucleus for the development of the three fraternal East Slavic peoples—the Russians, Ukrainians, and Byelorussians.

The feudal fragmentation of Rus’ (12th to 14th centuries). The fragmentation of Rus’, which began in the 11th century, had deep-seated economic causes. The economic and political ties between the various parts of Kievan Rus’ had been weak even at the height of its power, and the prevailing subsistence economy had hindered the rapid development of trade. The local princes and other feudal lords grew increasingly powerful in the 11th and 12th centuries, gaining control of numerous villages with dependent peasants and maintaining their own armies. The dissolution of Rus’ into a number of independent principalities in the 12th century was to some extent also a consequence of local economic growth. Southwestern Rus’, coinciding with most of the present-day Ukraine, broke up into the Kiev, Chernigov, Galician, and Vladimir-Volynian principalities.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, as crafts continued to develop, old cities expanded and new ones were founded. Kiev remained the principal city. The armies of the south Russian principalities often waged joint campaigns against the Polovtsy, notably in 1103 and 1111. The Kievan prince Vladimir Vsevolodovich Mo-nomakh (reigned 1113–25) was able to arrest temporarily the fragmentation of the Old Russian state by strengthening the economic and political ties between the southwestern Russian lands. The second half of the 12th and the early 13th centuries were marked by ceaseless feudal strife and armed clashes between the Russian princes, which made it easier for the neighboring Polovtsy, Hungarians, and Poles to raid Rus’. This state of affairs, however, did not prevent the Kievan princes from conducting joint campaigns against the Polovtsy in 1166, 1169, and the 1180’s.

In 1223 the armies of several south Russian principalities attacked the Mongol-Tatars, who had invaded lands bordering on Rus’, but they were defeated in the battle on the Kalka River because the princes did not coordinate their operations. Along with the rest of Rus’, the southern lands were invaded in 1239 by Mongol-Tatars led by Khan Batu, who destroyed the cities of Pereia-slav and Chernigov. Kiev fell in late 1240. Despite the heroic resistance of the people, the Mongol-Tatar forces continued their offensive and occupied the Galician-Volynian Principality. The conquered Russian principalities became possessions of the Golden Horde, the state founded by the Mongol-Tatars.

The plight of the popular masses became even more wretched as requisitions and services for the benefit of the Mongol-Tatar khans were added to the oppression by the local feudal lords. Increasing feudal fragmentation gave rise to small appanage principalities, such as Novgorod-Severskii, Putivl’, and Glukhov. Having declined economically and politically, Kiev ceased to be the ecclesiastical center of Rus’, although it remained important in religious life. In 1299 the metropolitan moved his seat to Vladimir, on the Kliaz’ma River.

Lithuania, Poland, and Hungary, by this time strong border states, sought to extend their rule over the Ukraine. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania seized the Chernigov-Severskii lands in the 1350’s and Podolia and the Kiev region in the 1360’s; it also annexed much of Volyn’. Poland invaded Galicia in 1349, consolidating its hold in 1387, and occupied western Volyn’ circa 1377. The northern Bucovina passed to Moldavia in the 14th century, falling under Turkish rule in the 16th century. The Crimean Khanate arose in the southern Ukraine and the Crimea in the 15th century. Transcarpathia, which had been lost to Hungary as early as the 11th century, also remained under foreign rule.

Under the harsh conditions of foreign rule, the annexed Ukrainian lands maintained contact with the Russian heartland. The idea of a united Rus’ was expressed in the chronicles, notably in the Kievan and Galician-Volynian chronicles, which were incorporated into the Hypatian Chronicle. The Ukrainian population absorbed by border states shared for a long time the historical fate of the Ukraine’s neighboring peoples. Ukrainians in the Polish-Lithuanian Army fought heroically against the German knights in the Battle of Tannenberg (1410), and those in the Hungarian Army struggle against Turkish aggression. Side by side with Russians and Moldavians, Ukrainians repulsed the Tatar raids.

Development of serfdom and the struggle of the popular masses against it; reunification with Russia (15th to the mid-17th century). The name “Ukraine, ” meaning “borderlands” (from the Russian krai, “border”), was initially applied only to certain southwestern Russian lands. Subsequently, it was extended to all the present Ukrainian lands and became an ethnic name. From the 16th century the name was used in official documents to designate the entire Ukraine. In the 14th and 15th centuries the Ukrainians emerged as a distinct ethnic community with their own language, culture, and customs. The consolidation of the Ukrainian nation occurred over the next two centuries.

Despite the difficult foreign and domestic political situation, the Ukraine continued to develop economically. The three-field system of land cultivation was widely adopted. In the cities the number of artisans, including guild members, increased, and trade expanded. Many Ukrainian cities received the right of self-government (Magdeburg law), although the right was severely curtailed by the central government and magnates. The 15th and 16th centuries saw the proliferation of large feudal estates (fol’varki), which used serf labor and produced agricultural commodities chiefly for the foreign market. The estates were created through the seizure of peasant lands, resulting in diminishing peasant landholdings and an increase in the number of peasants who were landless or whose plots were too small to support them. In response, the peasants intensified their antifeudal struggle by migrating to other areas, fleeing to the southern steppes, or refusing to perform their feudal obligations. They sometimes resorted to killing their landlords and to open uprisings, such as the peasant uprising led by Mukha, which engulfed Galicia and the northern Bucovina in 1490–92, and the Dózsa Rebellion, which broke out in Transcarpathia in 1514.

In the mid-15th century Turks and Tatars from the Crimean Khanate began raiding Galicia and Podolia. Kiev was destroyed by Mengli Girei’s army in 1482, and both the Kiev area and Podolia suffered incursions in subsequent years. The Ukrainian cossacks played a prominent role in the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people and in the defense of the Ukraine against enemy hordes. The Zaporozh’e Sech’, the main cossack stronghold, was established in the 16th century. From the late 15th century the centralized Russian state also played a large role in the Ukrainian people’s struggle against foreign invaders, eventually becoming their main support in their fight for freedom and independence. Russia’s struggle against the Polish-Lithuanian feudal lords and the Crimean Tatars undeniably hastened the liberation of the Ukraine. After the war of 1500–03, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ceded almost all of the Chernigov Land to the Russian state.

In the mid-16th century the situation in the Ukraine deteriorated rapidly. By the Union of Lublin (1569), Lithuania and Poland merged into a single state, called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which included the Ukrainian lands of Volyn’, eastern Podolia, the Kiev area, and part of the left bank of the Dnieper. The Polish magnates seized land in the Ukraine. The estates of some magnate families came to include hundreds of towns and villages. The movement of peasants from one estate to another was gradually restricted, until it was completely forbidden in 1588 by the Third Lithuanian Statute. The peasants became disfranchised serfs, and the urban population was impoverished. This state of affairs was aggravated by national and religious oppression. Whereas the Polish Catholic population enjoyed various privileges in crafts, trade, and other spheres, the rights of the Ukrainians were restricted.

The peasant and cossack uprisings of the late 16th century, in which the Zaporozh’e cossacks joined the peasants and urban poor, hold an important place in the Ukraine’s struggle for independence. Discontent with the tyranny of the Polish magnates was also widespread among the registered cossack host, which the Polish government had created in the second half of the 16th century to suppress popular movements and to protect the Ukraine against Tatar-Turkish raids. The peasant and cossack uprising of 1591–93, headed by Hetmán K. Kosinskii, engulfed the Kiev area, Podolia, and Volyn’. Another uprising, headed by S. Nalivaiko, broke out in 1594 and spread to part of Galacia and Byelorussia. The rebellion was brutally suppressed by the Polish authorities in 1596.

By the Brest Union of 1596, the Orthodox Church in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth merged with the Catholic Church and became known as the Uniate Church. The merger was proclaimed over the objections of the majority of the Ukrainian clergy and of all the Ukrainian people. An antiunion movement spread through the Ukraine. In the cities, cultural and religious organizations called brotherhoods established schools and printing presses and issued literature directed against the union and Catholicism.

Serfdom became much more oppressive in the Ukraine after the defeat of the peasant and cossack uprisings of the late 16th century. In 1606 a peasant war broke out in the Chernigov-Sever-skii region under the leadership of I. I. Bolotnikov. Ukrainian cossacks, peasants, and urban poor fought together against the oppressors. In the first half of the 17th century the Ukrainian people continued their struggle against Turkish and Tatar invaders. Cossacks launched campaigns against Varna, Belgorod, Kili-ia, Izmail, Trebizond, Sinope, and Istanbul. In 1616 cossacks captured Kaffa, and in 1621 they played an important role in the victory of Polish and Lithuanian troops over the Turks at Khotin. The Zaporozh’e cossacks assisted the Don cossacks in the defense of Azov from 1637 to 1642.

From the 1630’s large numbers of Ukrainian peasants and cossacks resettled in the steppes bordering on the Russian state, the region that came to be known as the Slobodskaia Ukraine. The Ukrainian liberation movement, whose objective was liberation from the rule of the Polish szlachta (nobility) and reunification with Russia, gained momentum after 1625. A peasant uprising in which cossacks also participated broke out in May 1630. Led by Taras Fedorovich (Triasilo), the rebellion engulfed the Kiev and Poltava lands. In 1635 the rebels, led by I. Sulima, destroyed the Kodak Fortress, which the Polish authorities had built to bar the peasants’ path to the Zaporozh’e Sech’. Another uprising, led by P. M. But (Pavliuk), broke out in 1637. The next year almost the entire Left-bank Ukraine was caught up in an antifeudal struggle led by Ia. Ostrianin and K. Skidan. The suppression of the movement forced Ostrianin and some of the cossacks to retreat to Russian-held territory and to settle in the Slobodskaia Ukraine. Rebels led by D. Gunia continued to fight heroically and then also withdrew to Russian areas.

The plight of the Ukrainian people became desperate by the middle of the 17th century. The magnates and the szlachta continued to seize peasant and cossack lands, enserf the peasants, and rob the townspeople. They also oppressed the lower ranks of the registered cossacks, the Ukrainian petty nobility, and the lower Orthodox clergy. The general discontent and opposition culminated in the Ukrainian Liberation War (1648–54), which led to the Ukraine’s reunification with Russia in 1654. Bogdan Khmel’nitskii led the people’s struggle against the oppression of gentry Poland.

In view of the numerous requests of representatives of the Ukrainian people and the threat to the Ukrainian people’s existence posed by the Polish and Turkish-Tatar aggressors, the Russian government convened a zemskii sobor (assembly) in Moscow on Oct. 1,1653, which resolved to reunite the Ukraine with Russia and to declare war on Poland. The Pereiaslav rada, which met on Jan. 8, 1654, also adopted a resolution calling for the reunification of the Ukraine with Russia. The March Articles (1654) established the autonomous status of the Ukraine within Russia and defined the rights and privileges of the cossack starshina (higher officers), the Ukrainian nobility, and the higher clergy. The reunification of the Ukraine with Russia, a fulfillment of the Ukrainian people’s age-old aspirations and hopes, was a turning point in their history and played a progressive role in their subsequent economic, political, and cultural development.

Social and economic development in the second half of the 17th century and the first half of the 18th. By late 1654, Russian and Ukrainian troops had liberated the Smolensk area and part of Byelorussia; they subsequently liberated part of Podolia and most of eastern Galicia. The Russian and Ukrainian troops were forced to retreat to the Dnieper after an invasion by Crimean Tatars, who were allies of the Poles. After the outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War (1656) for control over the Baltic area, the burden of fighting simultaneously in the northwest and the west compelled the Russian government to conclude an armistice at Wilno (Vilnius) on Oct. 23 (Nov. 2), 1656.

The liberation war of 1648–54 had important consequences for the Left-bank Ukraine, which became part of Russia. By ending the rule of the Polish szlachta, the war substantially undermined and weakened serfdom. Moreover, many peasants had become cossacks during the war. Soon after the war, however, Ukrainian feudal lords began enlarging their domains. The popular masses resisted the growing feudal exploitation. Peasant and cossack uprisings led by M. Pushkar’ and Ia. F. Barabash took place in 1657–58, and the next year I. Bogun led a rebellion against Hetmán I. E. Vygovskii, who tried to separate the Ukraine from Russia and to restore the rule of the Polish szlachta. In the 1660’s the Ukrainian people fought against the traitorous hetmans Iu. B. Khmel’nitskii, P. I. Teteria, P. D. Doroshenko, and I. M. Briukhovetskii, who tried to restore Polish and Turkish hegemony. The war between Russia and Poland over the Ukraine ended with the Armistice of Andrusovo (1667), which confirmed Russia’s sovereignty over the Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev.

Ruled by the Polish szlachta, the Right-bank Ukraine suffered under an onerous corvée system and numerous taxes and labor obligations. After seizing Podolia in 1672, Turkey appointed its henchman Iu. B. Khmel’nitskii hetmán of the Ukraine in 1677 and attempted to conquer the remaining Ukrainian lands but was repulsed by large Russian and Ukrainian forces in the Chigirin campaigns of 1677–78. The reverses obliged the Turkish government to conclude the Peace Treaty of Bakhchisarai (1681) with Russia. Nevertheless, the continuing threat of Turkish aggression impelled Russia to conclude the Eternal Peace (1686) with Poland, confirming Russian sovereignty over the Left-bank Ukraine, Kiev, and Zaporozh’e. Poland retained its control over the Right-bank Ukraine and Galicia. Podolia remained under Turkish rule until 1699 and the northern Bucovina until 1774. Transcarpathia continued to be held by Hungarian feudal lords.

The formation of the Ukrainian bourgeois nation began in the 17th century. In the late 17th and the first half of the 18th centuries the feudal starshina of the Left-bank and Slobodskaia Ukraine created large landed estates by purchasing or forcibly seizing peasant and cossack lands (seeSTARSHINA, COSSACK). The Manifesto of 1701, issued by Hetmán I. S. Mazepa, legalized the corvée system. Furthermore, restrictions were placed on the peasants’ mobility—for example, peasants were prohibited from moving to slobody (tax-exempt settlements) or enlisting in cossack regiments. The starshina owned industrial enterprises manufacturing saltpeter, glass, and iron and controlled much of the trade. Gradually, the starshina gained class privileges, and starshina dynasties emerged to dominate Ukrainian regiments and sotni (units of 100 men). Among prominent starshina families were the Apostols, Zabels, and Lizogubs.

The growing enserfment and exploitation sparked rebellions among the popular masses, the largest of which were the uprising of 1687, the peasant and cossack uprisings of the 1690’s, and K. Bulavin’s movement of 1707–08. The plight of the peasants in the Right-bank and western Ukrainian lands remained miserable. In addition to performing labor services four or five days a week, the peasants were burdened with various other obligations exacted by the szlachta, royal officials, and the Uniate Church. The authorities tried to suppress Ukrainian culture, and the Orthodox Church was persecuted. Under these circumstances the liberation movement gained ground, manifesting itself in the popular uprising of 1702–04 led by S. F. Palii, the operations of rebel Haidamak detachments in the 1730’s and 1740’s, the Oprishki movement led by O. V. Dovbush in Galicia in the 1730’s and 1740’s, and the popular uprising in Transcarpathia that lasted from 1703 to 1711.

The Ukrainian cossack host fought alongside the Russian Army in the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689 and in the Azov campaigns of 1695–96. After Russia concluded a peace treaty with Turkey in 1700, the predatory Turkish and Tatar raids on the Ukraine ceased for a time. The Ukrainian cossack host also participated in the first phase of the Northern War (1700–21). At this time an anti-Russian conspiracy headed by Hetmán Mazepa arose among the starshina elite. Mazepa sought to return the Left-bank Ukraine to Polish rule and concluded secret anti-Russian treaties with Poland and Sweden. General Judge V. L. Kochubei and Colonel I. I. Iskra were unsuccessful in their efforts to expose the hetman’s treachery, and when Swedish troops invaded the Ukraine in October 1708, Mazepa defected with part of the starshina and some 2,000 to 3,000 cossacks.

The Ukrainian people remained loyal to the union with Russia and initiated a people’s war against the Swedish invaders. The Swedish Army’s attacks on Poltava were heroically repulsed by the city’s inhabitants and by the small garrison that manned the city’s fortifications under the command of A. S. Kelin (April-June 1709). Ukrainian cossack regiments fought in the battle of Poltava (1709) and pursued the Swedes as far as the Dnieper. The victorious conclusion of the Northern War saved the Ukraine from foreign occupation. However, the failure of the Prut Campaign (1711) forced Russia to give up temporarily its attempts to liberate the Right-bank Ukraine.

The Ukraine benefited from the reforms introduced by Peter the Great’s government because they stimulated the exploration of mineral resources and the founding of manufacturing enterprises in Akhtyrka, Putivl’, Pochep, Riaski, and other cities in the 1720’s and 1730’s. At the same time, the tsarist government tightened its control over the Ukraine. In retaliation for Maze-pa’s betrayal, the Russian Army destroyed the Zaporozh’e Sech’ in 1709. The Zaporozh’e cossacks who fled to the Crimean Khanate formed the Aleshki Sech’. After the Russian government granted their request to return to the Ukraine, the cossacks founded the Novaia Sech’ in 1734.

In 1709 a tsarist official was appointed to advise the hetmán, and in 1722 the Little Russian Collegium was established to supervise the activity of the hetmán and the starshina. After the death of Hetmán 1.1. Skoropadskii in 1722, the election of a new hetmán was prohibited, and Hetmán P. L. Polubotok was appointed to govern the Ukraine for a specified term. Deteriorating relations with Turkey obliged the tsarist government to consent to the election of D. P. Apóstol as hetmán in 1727. After Apo-stol’s death in 1734, elections were again prohibited. The Hetman’s Office (Uriad), composed of tsarist officials and members of the starshina, was created to administer the Left-bank Ukraine, which came to be known as the Hetmanate. In 1750, K. G. Razumovskii was appointed hetmán of the Ukraine. The tsarist government finally abolished the Hetmanate in 1764, and the Left-bank Ukraine was once more placed under the administration of the Little Russian Collegium, headed by Field Marshal P. A. Rumiantsev-Zadunaiskii.

In 1775 the tsarist government abolished the New Sech’ and distributed most of its land among Russian and Ukrainian noble landowners (pomeshchiki). The Black Sea Cossack Host was formed in 1787 and resettled in the Kuban’ Region in 1792–93. Enraged over the abolition of the Sech’, a group of starshina and cossacks left the Russian Empire and settled on Turkish territory, forming the Zadunaiskaia Sech’ along the Lower Danube. In 1781 the tsarist government abolished the polk (regimental) administrative system in the Left-bank Ukraine. Over the next decade the Kiev, Chernigov, Novgorod-Severskii, Kharkov, and Ekaterinoslav vicegerencies were set up in the Left-bank, Slobodskaia, and southern Ukraine.

The second quarter of the 18th century saw the further enserfment of the Ukrainian peasantry, whose mobility was increasingly restricted.

Serfdom in the second half of the 18th century; the emergence of capitalist relations. By the second half of the 18th century a feudal serf economy prevailed in the Ukraine. Capitalist relations were emerging, however, to hasten the disintegration of the feudal mode of production. Commodity-money relations developed rapidly, spreading to all branches of the economy. In adapting their estates to the demands of commodity production, the noble landlords intensified their exploitation of the feudally dependent peasants. The peasants had to perform labor services three days a week; on some estates a corvée of four or five days a week was imposed. The tsarist decree of May 3, 1783, juridically sanctioned the complete enserfment of the peasants of the Left-bank and Slobodskaia Ukraine. In 1785 the cossack starshina was placed on an equal footing with the Russian nobility. The tsarist government deprived the rank-and-file cossacks of many of their privileges and classified them as a separate estate comparable to the state peasants. In 1796 the tsarist government extended the Russian legislation on the enserfment of the peasants to the southern Ukraine.

The peasants of the Right-bank Ukraine and eastern Galicia, areas that were included in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, lived under the heavy yoke of feudal serfdom. An oppressive corvée system, various taxes, and the landlords’ monopoly on grain milling, distilling, and the sale of tar and saltpeter resulted in the impoverishment of the peasantry and the decline of cities. The Polish government pursued a policy of forcible po-lonization in the Right-bank Ukraine. After the first partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, when Austria acquired eastern Galicia and the northern Bucovina, the popular masses had to endure not only the brutal exploitation by Ukrainian and Polish landlords but also the tyranny of the Austrian ruling classes, who aimed at forcible germanization of the Ukrainian population. In the Transcarpathian Ukraine, which had been annexed by Austria along with Hungary in the early 18th century, the condition of the peasantry steadily deteriorated.

In the second half of the 18th century social differentiation among the peasantry became more marked in the Left-bank and Slobodskaia Ukraine, especially among state peasants. Commodity production using hired labor expanded rapidly in the southern Ukraine, where serfdom had not become entrenched. The more highly developed Russian industry had a progressive influence on industrial production in the Left-bank and Slobodskaia Ukraine. In the late 18th century there were more than 200 large industrial enterprises (manufactures) in the Ukraine, including landlords’ manufactures operating with serf labor, state manufactures manned by state and assigned peasants (seePRIPISNYE KRESTIANE), and capitalist manufactures relying on wage labor. Along with serf labor, wage labor became increasingly important in the landlords’ and state manufactures. Various artisan crafts flourished in the cities, among them the making of clothing and _ifootwear, smithery, coopery, leatherworking, and weaving.

The expansion of commodity production stimulated the growth of trade in the Ukraine. Fairs strengthened the economic ties between the various Ukrainian lands and promoted the growth of trade between the Ukraine and central Russia. The fairs in Kro-levets, Nezhin, Romny, Sumy, Starodub, and Kharkov were all-Russian fairs. After the abolition of customs barriers in 1754, the Left-bank Ukraine was rapidly incorporated into the all-Russian market.

The shipment of freight, controlled by wealthy carters who exploited wage laborers, became an important economic activity in the areas that were reunited with Russia. After the Russo-Turkish wars of 1768–74, under the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, Russia acquired the lands between the mouths of the Don and Iuzhnyi Bug rivers, ensuring access to the Black Sea. The Crimean Khanate was included in the Russian Empire in 1783. In the second half of the 18th century the Northern Black Sea Coast was named Novorossiia (New Russia).

The 18th century was marked by intensified class antagonisms and resistance to serfdom. In the Right-bank Ukraine the Haida-mak movement culminated in several uprisings, the largest of which, the Koliivshchina (1768), included fugitive Russian and Moldavian peasants. Detachments headed by S. Garkusha operated in the Left-bank and Slobodskaia Ukraine. The peasants’ struggle against serfdom in this part of the Ukraine gained momentum during the Peasant War led by E. I. Pugachev (1773–75), when many Ukrainian peasants went to the Volga Region to join Pugachev’s army. There were uprisings of peasants and workers employed in manufactures in several parts of the Ukraine. All these rebellions against serfdom were brutally suppressed.

After the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–91, Russia acquired the area between the Iuzhnyi Bug and the Dnestr under the Peace of Jassy. The Ukrainian people, including the Black Sea Cossack Host, had fought in the war with Turkey. The liberation of the Black Sea Coast was of great importance for the further economic development of the southern Ukraine, whose population grew rapidly. The tsarist government granted land to foreign colonists, both German settlers and Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, and Moldavians who had fled from Turkish oppression. Among the cities that were founded in the southern Ukraine after 1750 were Kherson, Aleksandrovsk (now Zaporozh’e), Mariupol’ (now Zhdanov), Ekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk), Nikolaev, Odessa, and Elizavetgrad (now Kirovograd).

By the second and third partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the entire Right-bank Ukraine and Volyn’ were reunited with Russia. The reunification promoted the growth of the Ukraine’s productive forces, strengthened the economic and cultural ties between the various Ukrainian lands, and created favorable conditions for the further development of the Ukrainian nation.

The second half of the 18th century saw the spread of social thought critical of tsarism and serfdom, condemned in such works as G. S. Skovoroda’s philosophical writings and poetry, Ia. P. Kozel’skii’s works, and V. V. Kapnist’s Ode to Slavery. Secular literature containing elements of realism became more important. The creative forces of the Ukrainian people developed, and their ties with the fraternal Russian people expanded.

Disintegration and crisis of serfdom; growth of capitalism (late 18th century to 1861). In 1796 the Left-bank Ukraine was designated the Little Russian Province, and the Slobodskaia Ukraine became the Slobodsko-Ukraine Province, renamed Kharkov Province in 1835. The Right-bank Ukraine was administratively divided into Kiev, Volyn’, and Podolia provinces, which from 1832 made up the Kiev Governor-Generalship. In the early 19th century the Little Russian Province became a governor-generalship incorporating Chernigov and Poltava provinces. In the southern Ukraine, Ekaterinoslav, Kherson, and Tavrida provinces were established in 1802–03; after 1812 these provinces were joined with the Bessarabian Oblast to form the Novorossi-isk-Bessarabian Governor-Generalship.

An industrial bourgeoisie and a proletariat emerged in the Ukraine in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The urban population increased from 512,900 in 1811 to 1,456,800 in 1858. In the early 19th century the bulk of the Ukraine’s population of 7.5 million consisted of noblemen’s and state peasants. In the late 1850’s there were 5.4 million serfs in the Ukraine, of whom more than 3 million lived in the Right-bank Region, 1.7 million in the Left-bank Region, and 700,000 in the south. State peasants numbered 3.2 million.

Agriculture continued to develop despite the dominance of serfdom. Commercial cultivation of tobacco and hemp expanded in the Left-bank Ukraine, and large quantities of wheat and sugar beets were raised in the Right-bank Ukraine. In the south the herds of fine-fleeced sheep were increasing, and wheat production was expanding. There was an increase in the sale of such commodities as grain, alcohol, cloth, sugar, paper, glass, saltpeter, and potash. Most of the commercial grain was produced on noblemen’s estates, which increasingly came to rely on wage labor and agricultural machinery. Social differentation among the peasantry became more marked.

The decline of serfdom was accompanied by a development of industry and peasant crafts and by an increase in the number of industrial workers. In 1825 there were 674 industrial enterprises, excluding distilleries, employing 15,200 workers. By 1860 there were 2,147 enterprises employing 85,000 workers, 54 percent of whom were hired laborers. The industrial revolution, which spread to the Ukraine in the 1830’s and reached its peak in the 1890’s, transformed the sugar and cloth industries. In 1860 there were some 20 machine-building plants and many machine shops in the Ukraine. Capitalist enterprises gradually supplanted the noblemen’s enterprises that had used serf labor. By 1861 more than 200,000 workers were employed in factories and artisan shops.

The late 18th century and the first half of the 19th witnessed a steady growth of trade in the Ukraine, now integrated into the all-Russian market. Of the roughly 5,000 fairs held in Russia in 1858, 2,000 took place in the Ukraine. The Ukraine also played a major role in Russia’s foreign trade, exporting grain, livestock and hunting products, fish, and such manufactured goods as candles, rope, and linen. From 1812 to 1859 grain exports through the ports of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov accounted for 41 percent of the grain exported from European Russia.

Economically, the western Ukrainian lands annexed by Austria (with 1,730,000 inhabitants in the late 18th century) lagged behind the Ukrainian lands in the Russian Empire. Their natural resources were scarcely exploited. In 1841, Galicia and the Bucovina accounted for 20 percent of the population of the Austrian Empire and only 7.5 percent of the value of its industrial output.

Ukrainians fought alongside Russians in the Patriotic War of 1812. The Ukraine supplied 15 cossack regiments and about 20 regiments of cavalry and infantry militiamen. Russia’s victory had a great impact on all aspects of public life in both Russia and the Ukraine. There were spontaneous uprisings against serfdom. The harsh regimen in the military settlements that were established in the Ukraine in 1816 sparked a rebellion among the Bug cossacks in 1817 and among the Chuguev military colonists in 1819. The southern Ukraine was the scene of a peasant movement in 1818–20. The all-Russian Decembrist movement spread to the Ukraine, where the Southern Society was founded in 1821 and the Society of the United Slavs in 1823. The uprising that broke out in St. Petersburg on Dec. 14,1825, was followed by an uprising in the vicinity of Kiev that lasted from Dec. 29,1825, to Jan. 3, 1826 (Jan. 10–15, 1826). The Decembrist uprising in the Ukraine was also crushed.

A mass peasant uprising headed by the soldier A. Semenov broke out in Uman’ District, Kiev Province, in the spring of 1826. A rebellion against serfdom, led by U. Ia. Karmaliuk, swept across Podolia in the first half of the 19th century, engulfing adjoining districts of Kiev Province and Bessarabia. During the Polish Uprising of 1830–31 the majority of the Ukrainian peasants did not support the rebels and opposed the szlachta’s attempts to bring the Right-bank Ukraine under Polish rule. In an effort to draw the Ukrainian peasants into the struggle against the Polish national liberation movement, in which the Polish landlords of the Right-bank Ukraine were active, the tsarist government introduced the Inventory Regulations (1847–48), giving the peasants control over their nadel land allotments (seeNADEL) and fixing the amount of corvée and other feudal obligations.

In the 1840’s the Ukrainian liberation movement, hitherto dominated by revolutionary noblemen, entered a bourgeois democratic, raznochintsy phase (seeRAZNOCHINTSY). A secret political organization called the Society of Cyril and Methodius was founded in Kiev in December 1845 and January 1846. Its program called for an end to serfdom, national inequality, and noblemen’s privileges and for the unification of all the Slavic peoples in a federal republic. The society’s revolutionary democratic wing was headed by T. G. Shevchenko. In 1847 the tsarist government disbanded the society and hounded its members.

In the first half of the 19th century the struggle of the popular masses against serfdom intensified in the western Ukrainian lands, where Oprishki detachments operated under the command of D. Marusiak, I. Voloshchuk, A. Revizorchuk, and M. Shtoliuk. In the Bucovina the peasant movement reached its height in the 1840’s under the leadership of Luk’ian Kobylitsa.

The revolution that broke out in Austria in March 1848 soon spread to the western Ukrainian lands. The revolutionary events impelled Emperor Ferdinand I to issue a decree abolishing the corvée in Galicia and paving the way for an agrarian reform favorable to the landlords. In return for their “liberation, ” the peasants, who lost their forests and pastures and a large part of their plowland, were to make heavy redemption payments for 40 years. The bourgeois intelligentsia and the higher Uniate clergy sought to lead the national liberation movement in eastern Galicia through the Golovna Rus’ka Rada, founded in L’vov in May 1848. The organization restricted itself to cultural demands and soon sided with the Austrian government, which crushed the revolution with the aid of the tsarist government.

The main burden of the Crimean War (1853–56) fell on the peasants. The peasant movement gained strength throughout Russia, including the Ukraine, where it reached its height in 1855 in the Kiev Kazatchina. The next year large peasant uprisings took place in Kherson and Ekaterinoslav provinces. During the revolutionary situation of 1859–61, A. I. Herzen’s Kolokol and other publications of the Free Russian Press circulated widely in the Ukraine. The largest of the secret revolutionary organizations was the Secret Society of Kharkov and Kiev, a revolutionary democratic student organization that existed from 1856 to 1863.

Growth of industrial capitalism and the beginning of the proletariat’s revolutionary struggle (second half of the 19th century). The Peasant Reform of 1861, a bourgeois reform that abolished serfdom, nevertheless preserved many of its vestiges. In six Ukrainian provinces alone more than 985,000 desiatiny (1,073,650 hectares) were taken from the peasants and turned over to the landlords. The peasants resisted the implementation of the exploitative reform. About 170 large uprisings were suppressed by tsarist troops from March to May 1861.

The revolutionary democratic movement in the Ukraine was an integral part of the all-Russian revolutionary movement. The leading disseminators of revolutionary ideas in the Ukraine were Lieutenant Colonel A. A. Krasovskii, the student E. M. Mossa-kovskii, and the surveyor I. A. Andrushchenko. Both Russian and Ukrainian democrats supported the Polish Uprising of 1863–64, which spread to parts of the Right-bank Ukraine. The uprising forced the tsarist government to hasten the Peasant Reform in the Right-bank Ukraine and to make it more favorable to the peasants there than in the Left-bank and southern Ukraine. Concurrently, however, national oppression grew. A circular issued by the minister of internal affairs in 1863 prohibited the printing of textbooks and popular science works in Ukrainian.

In the western Ukraine, a political group representing the interests of the large landowners and clergy emerged after the defeat of the Revolution of 1848–49 in Austria. Known as the Mos-cophiles, the group sought the support of the tsarist regime and at the same time curried favor with the Austrian government. The region’s liberal bourgeois Narodovtsy, many of whom were nationalists, aspired to an alliance with the Austrian government. The western Ukrainian revolutionary democrats, headed by I. Ia. Franko, vigorously opposed both the Moscophiles and the Narodovtsy.

From the late 1860’s to the 1880’s the Narodniki (Populists) played the leading role in the revolutionary movement in the Ukraine, as throughout Russia. Populist groups, of which the most prominent were the Kiev Commune and the Odessa section of the Chaikovskii circle, sprang up in several Ukrainian cities in the early 1870’s. Almost all the Ukrainian provinces were affected by the “going to the people” movement. I. M. Koval’skii’s circle and the Southern Rebels were active in the mid-1870’s. In 1877 insurgents led by la. V. Stefanovich tried to incite a peasant rebellion in Chigirin District, Kiev Province, and the next year Ukrainian Populists, among them V. A. Osinskii, committed several terrorist acts against government officials in Kiev, Odessa, and Kharkov.

Members of the People’s Will, including S. N. Khalturin, A. I. Zheliabov, N. I. Kibal’chich, and M. F. Florenko, engaged in revolutionary work in the Ukraine. In November 1879 members of the People’s Will in Odessa and Aleksandrovsk were planning the assassination of Alexander II. The following year members of another Populist organization, the Black Partition (Chernyi Peredel), founded the South Russian Workers’ Union in Kiev. The late 1870’s saw the growing influence of the Gromady, cultural organizations founded by the Ukrainian bourgeois liberal intelligentsia after the Reform of 1861 in Kiev, Kharkov, Odessa, and other Ukrainian cities. There were student disturbances at the University of Kiev and at Novorossiia University (Odessa).

The abolition of serfdom was followed by rapid development of capitalism in the Ukraine. From 1869 to 1897 the number of industrial enterprises rose from 3,712 to 8,063, and the value of industrial output increased from 71 million to 439 million rubles. A rapid concentration of production took place. By the late 19th century the Ukraine had become the main coal and metallurgical base of the Russian Empire and the country’s chief sugar producer. Its agricultural machinery was sold nationwide. Belgian, French, and German capitalists invested heavily in Ukrainian industry, especially in mining. The expansion of the Ukraine’s industry and domestic market stimulated railroad construction, so that by the late 19th century the Ukraine had 10,000 versts (10,700 km) of railroads, or one-fifth of Russia’s railroad network. A modern industrial proletariat evolved as the Ukrainian working class increased from 86,000 persons in the 1860’s to 330,000 in the 1890’s. Most of the industrial workers were employed in the mining, metallurgical, and metalworking industries of the southern Ukraine.

Capitalism also transformed agriculture, in which the feudal labor-service system (seeOTRABOTKI) was gradually giving way to the capitalist mode of production. In the 1880’s capitalist relations prevailed in agriculture in the southern and Right-bank Ukraine. Farm machinery was widely used, especially in the southern Ukraine, and more than 90 percent of the sown area was planted to grain. Capitalist expansion in agriculture caused the rapid social decline of the peasantry: in the southern Ukraine hundreds of thousands of farm laborers worked on farms owned by noble landlords and kulaks (rich peasants). Moreover, noble landholdings in the Ukraine decreased from 16 million desiatinas (17.4 million ha) in 1877 to 12.2 million desiatinas (13.3 million ha) in the early 20th century while kulaks’ and merchants’ land-holdings increased. From the 1860’s to the 1890’s cities grew rapidly, and the urban population more than doubled, reaching 4.32 million in 1896.

The Ukraine played a prominent role in Russia’s domestic and foreign trade. Exports through the ports of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov and through inland customs houses in the Ukraine accounted for more than 50 percent of the value of Russia’s exports across its European borders.

Under the oppressive rule of Austria-Hungary, the western Ukraine became a source of raw material and a market for manufactured goods. Its industry, consisting chiefly of small enterprises and workshops, developed slowly. Agriculture was in a state of decline. The numerous feudal vestiges that remained after the abolition of serfdom in 1848, coupled with oppressive taxation and exploitation by landlords and kulaks, impoverished the peasantry.

The formation of a bourgeois Ukrainian nation was completed after the Peasant Reform of 1861, when a bourgeois class and a proletariat evolved. The Ukrainian workers’ movement was an integral part of the all-Russian workers’ movement. The number of workers’ demonstrations and strikes increased from year to year, rising from 72 in the 1860’s and 1870’s to 110 between 1880 and 1894 and to 226 between 1895 and 1899.

The first proletarian organization in the Ukraine was the South Russian Workers’ Union, founded in Odessa in 1875 by E. O. Zaslavskii. Marxism began spreading throughout Russia and the Ukraine in the 1870’s. One of the first popularizers of Marx’ economic theories was N. I. Ziber, a professor at the University of Kiev.

The working people of the western Ukraine joined the struggle against social and national oppression under the leadership of I. Ia. Franko and M. I. Pavlik. After 1895 the liberation movement in the Ukraine, as in Russia, entered its proletarian phase. Under the influence of the St. Petersburg League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class, such leagues were founded in Kiev and Ekaterinoslav in 1897. The organizers and leaders of the Ekaterinoslav League of Struggle were V. I. Lenin’s followers and companions-in-arms I. V. Babushkin and I. Kh. Lalaiants. The leagues of struggle led workers’ strikes, engaged in revolutionary propaganda and agitation, and printed and disseminated leaflets. They were instrumental in convening the First Congress of the RSDLP.

The Ukraine in the era of imperialism and of the bourgeois democratic revolutions in Russia (1900–17). In the early 20th century the economy of the Ukraine, like that of all Russia, was marked by the appearance of large monopolies, a strong influx of foreign capital into such important industries as coal mining and metallurgy, and the existence of vestiges of serfdom. The exploitation of Ukrainian workers and peasants by the bourgeoisie and noble landlords was exacerbated by tsarism’s great-power and reactionary policies. Denigrating Ukrainian culture and persecuting its progressive representatives, the government tried to stifle the Ukrainian language, press, and theater.

The main goals of the Ukrainian people’s liberation movement in the early 20th century were the destruction of tsarism, social and national liberation, and the reunification of the western Ukrainian population with the rest of the Ukrainian people. The movement had the same class orientation as the revolutionary struggle of the Russian and other peoples of the Russian Empire against tsarism and capitalism. The unity of the Russian and Ukrainian working class was the decisive factor in the international alliance for the liberation of the Ukraine. Lenin’s newspaper Iskra was of great importance for the political education of the Ukrainian working class in the spirit of proletarian internationalism.

A political demonstration was held in Kharkov in 1900, and two years later a peasant uprising engulfed Kharkov and Poltava provinces. The working people of the Ukraine participated in the general strike that took place in south Russia in 1903 and in the Revolution of 1905–07, when 170,000 people were on strike from January to March 1905. About 50,000 people participated in the 1905 May Day strikes, and that summer the peasant movement spread over half of the Ukraine. The revolt that broke out in June on the battleship Potemkin was supported by the workers of Odessa. About 120,000 workers struck in the Ukraine during the October All-Russian Political Strike of 1905.

By the end of 1905 soviets of workers’ deputies had been formed in Kiev, Ekaterinoslav, Odessa, Nikolaev, Iuzovka, and other cities. Revolutionary disturbances persisted in the army and navy, culminating in the Sevastopol’ Mutiny and the Kiev Sapper Uprising. The December armed uprising in Moscow found support in the Ukraine, where political strikes paralyzed the major industrial centers. The Donets Coal Basin (Donbas) was the scene of an armed uprising whose focal point was Gorlov-ka. During the peasant unrest some 300 landlords’ manors were destroyed.

In 1906 the revolutionary tide ebbed gradually in the cities. The working class did not retreat without a struggle, however; some 100,000 workers went on strike that year. Fearing an escalation of the revolution, the Ukrainian bourgeoisie and its nationalist organizations cooperated with the tsarist government, as shown by the activity of the Ukrainian Duma Gromada in the First and Second state dumas.

The Revolution of 1905–07 had an enormous impact on the various peoples of Austria-Hungary, including its western Ukrainian population. The liberation movement in the western Ukrainian lands spread among the masses and matured politically. During this period demonstrations in support of the Russian Revolution, May Day celebrations, and public gatherings calling for universal suffrage took place in L’vov, Drogobych, Stanislav (now Ivano-Frankovsk), Chernovtsy, and other cities. The number of enterprises affected by strikes increased by a factor of 4 from 1900 to 1905 in Galicia and by a factor of 20 between 1901 and 1905 in the Bucovina. In Galicia alone, peasant strikes were staged in 384 villages in 1906. The national liberation movement gained ground among the western Ukrainian working people, who, unlike the pro-Hapsburg Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists, advocated reunification with Russia.

During the reactionary period that lasted from 1907 to 1910, Bolshevik organizations were persecuted in the Ukraine, trade unions were disbanded, and thousands of participants in the revolutionary movement were executed, imprisoned, or exiled. An economic depression affecting all branches of industry caused the shutdown of enterprises and a decline in the production of coal, manganese, and metal goods. Introduced in 1906, the Stolypin Agrarian Reform was intended to make the kulaks the social bulwark of tsarism in the countryside. Between 1907 and 1911 more than 226,000 fragmented peasant holdings were consolidated into farmsteads, either khutora (farms on which the peasant family lived) or otruba (farms whose owners lived in villages). As more and more nadel land (seeNADEL) was sold off, many impoverished working peasants migrated to Siberia, Middle Asia, and Kazakhstan. From 1907 to 1914 more than 1.1 million people emigrated from the Ukraine, but the harsh conditions in the new places forced about 70 percent of the immigrants to return home.

An industrial revival began in 1910 in the Ukraine, as well as throughout Russia. Coal production in the Donets Basin rose from 1,018,000,000 poods (1 pood = 16.38 kg) in 1910 to 1,550,000,000 poods in 1913. The output of cast iron and steel increased, and new enterprises were established. As the labor movement gained strength, the number of striking workers rose from about 10,000 in 1909 to 15,000 in 1911 and 132,000 in 1912. Political strikes took place more frequently. L. N. Tolstoy’s death in 1910 provided the occasion for antigovernment demonstrations in several Ukrainian cities. The Lena Massacre of 1912 sparked political strikes in Kiev, Nikolaev, and other cities. In 1914, workers in Kiev and Kharkov protested against the tsarist government’s ban on celebrations of the 100th anniversary of T. G. Shevchenko’s birth.

During World War I, industry and agriculture in the Ukraine declined, and the living conditions of the working people deteriorated drastically. Between 1913 and the summer of 1917 the production of iron ore dropped by 46 percent, manganese ore by 29 percent, cast iron by 32 percent, and steel by 33 percent. The sugar output fell from 85 million poods in 1914 to 50 million poods in 1916. The cities were plagued by food shortages, inflation, and speculation. Even worse was the fate of the working people in the western Ukrainian lands, which became battlefields. Under Bolshevik leadership, opposition to the imperialist war assumed a mass character in the Ukraine. In 1915 there were 113 strikes involving 48,000 workers, and the next year more than 196,000 workers participated in 218 strikes.

During the February Revolution of 1917 there were political strikes in Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav, Makeevka, and Gorlovka, as well as at several mines in the Donets Coal Basin. In January and February 1917 there were 50 strikes involving more than 40,000 workers in the Ukraine. After the victory of the revolution in Petrograd on Feb. 27 (Mar. 12), 1917, thousands of people took part in demonstrations and rallies of solidarity in Kiev, Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav, Lugansk (now Voroshilovgrad), Nikolaev, Kherson, and other Ukrainian cities. The tsarist administrative system was abolished, and soviets of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies were formed everywhere.

The Great October Socialist Revolution and the Civil War (1917–20). After the victory of the February Bourgeois-Democratic Revolution, dual power was established in the Ukraine, as throughout Russia. The counterrevolutionary policy of the Provisional Government was supported by the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries (SR’s), who together had a majority in the soviets at that time, as well as by the bourgeois nationalist Central Rada, founded in Kiev in March 1917. The imperialist war and the antipopular policy of the Provisional Government intensified the economic dislocation in the Ukraine (108 plants were idle in May, and 205 in June) and exacerbated the workers’ plight.

The Bolsheviks were the only spokesmen for the social and national aspirations of the Ukrainian working people. After emerging from the underground, the Bolsheviks quickly strengthened their ranks, worked in the soviets, played a major role in creating trade unions, factory and plant committees, and a workers’ militia, and conducted large-scale agitation and propaganda. Several Bolshevik newspapers were founded, including Proletarii (Proletarian) in Kharkov, Golos sotsial-demokrata (Voice of the Social Democrat) in Kiev, and Zvezda (Star) in Ekaterinoslav. V. I. Lenin’s April Theses were approved by the major party organizations in the Ukraine.

The Bolsheviks spread revolutionary ideas among soldiers, chiefly on the Southwestern Front. In the countryside they reiterated Lenin’s slogans calling for the confiscation of landlords’ land and the transfer of the land to the working peasantry. The Bolsheviks opposed both the great-power and chauvinistic policy of the Provisional Government and the antipopular nationalist policy of the Central Rada. In an effort to exploit national traditions, the Central Rada formed military units from among Ukrainian soldiers and detachments of Haidamaks and “free cossacks” from among kulaks. It sought to win over the masses with the slogan of Ukrainian autonomy within a bourgeois Russia.

The revolutionary events in central Russia found an echo in the Ukraine. The April 21 (May 4) demonstration in Petrograd, connected with the April Crisis of 1917, was followed by workers’ demonstrations in Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav, Kiev, and Odessa, in the Donets Coal Basin, and in the Krivoi Rog Region. During the June Crisis of 1917 the working people of Kiev, Kharkov, Lugansk, and several Donbas workers’ settlements, among them Gorlovka, Nikitovka, and Iuzovka (now Donetsk), held numerous rallies and demonstrations affirming Bolshevik slogans. In late June a delegation from the Provisional Government headed by A. F. Kerensky arrived in Kiev to unite the counterrevolutionary forces and to “settle” the conflict with the Central Rada. The General Secretariat of the Central Rada was declared the Provisional Government’s agency in the Ukraine.

The defeat of the Kornilovshchina helped consolidate the revolutionary forces in the Ukraine. There were mass workers’ strikes in the summer and fall of 1917 in Kharkov, Kiev, Ekaterinoslav, Odessa, Nikolaev, and the Donets Coal Basin. The agrarian movement developed into a peasant war, and hundreds of landlords’ estates were destroyed. The Bolsheviks gained a majority in the soviets. Resolutions calling for the transfer of power to the soviets were adopted by the soviets of Odessa, Kiev, Chernigov, and many cities and settlements in the Donets Coal Basin. Red Guard detachments were formed.

The victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution realized the social and national aspirations of all the peoples of the Russian Empire, including the Ukrainians. More than 100 delegates from the Ukraine attended the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which proclaimed the transfer of all power to the soviets. The Ukrainian working people approved the decrees adopted by the Congress of Soviets and expressed their wholehearted support of the Soviet government headed by V. I. Lenin. After the victory of the October Armed Uprising in Petrograd and Moscow, the Bolsheviks in the Ukraine launched a campaign for the establishment of Soviet rule everywhere. They had to fight not only the forces of the Provisional Government but also the Central Rada, which opposed the soviets and was trying to establish its rule over the Ukraine. The Central Rada still enjoyed some support among backward groups of peasants, workers, and Ukrainian soldiers.

In late October and early November 1917 workers established Soviet power without bloodshed in the Donets Coal Basin, the proletarian stronghold of the Ukraine and the place where the Bolsheviks held a majority in the soviets. Among the Donbas cities and workers’ settlements to come under the Soviet power were Lugansk, Makeevka, and Gorlovka. Soviet power was also victorious in the area along the Southwestern Front, in such towns as Lutsk, Vinnitsa, Rovno, Proskurov (now Khmel’nitski-i), Zhmerinka, Kamenets-Podol’skii, and Mogilev-Podol’skii.

A joint session of soviets of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies held in Kiev on October 27 (November 9) adopted the Bolshevik resolution to support the uprising in Petrograd and to transfer power in Kiev to a military revolutionary committee (seeKIEV ARMED UPRISINGS OF 1917 AND 1918). The Provisional Government’s troops were defeated after fierce fighting on Oct. 29–31 (Nov. 11–13), 1917. The Ukrainian bourgeoisie was quick to take advantage of the victory of the revolutionary workers and soldiers. The Central Rada seized government institutions and proclaimed itself the supreme authority in the Ukraine. In a manifesto issued on November 7 (20), the Central Rada proclaimed the Ukraine a “people’s republic” and, seeking to neutralize the effect of Lenin’s decrees, demagogically promised to establish state supervision over industry, to introduce an eight-hour workday, and to transfer the land to the peasants. Simultaneously, it terrorized the revolutionary forces in the Ukraine, dispersing soviets, arresting Bolsheviks, and disarming Red Guard detachments and revolutionary military units. Punitive detachments were sent against peasants who were dividing up landlords’ estates.

After making contact with military representatives of the Entente, the Central Rada agreed to continue the imperialist war, although it sowed confusion on the front by recalling Ukrainian soldiers. It also established contact with Russian counterrevolutionary forces, in particular those of the Don region, becoming a bastion of the all-Russian counterrevolution. In early December 1917 the Council of People’s Commissars of Soviet Russia issued a manifesto to the Ukrainian people recognizing their sovereign rights and requesting the Central Rada not to allow the movement of counterrevolutionary units across the Ukraine to the Don and to stop disarming revolutionary and Red Guard units. However, the Central Rada ignored the legitimate demands of the Soviet government.

Meeting in Kharkov on Dec. 11–12 (24–25), 1917, the First All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets proclaimed the Ukraine a Soviet republic, resolved to establish federal relations with Soviet Russia, and elected the Central Executive Committee of the Soviets of the Ukraine. On December 17 (30) the Central Executive Committee formed the first Soviet government of the Ukraine, the People’s Secretariat, which included Artem (F. A. Sergeev), E. B. Bosh, V. P. Zatonskii, and N. A. Skrypnik.

In December 1917 and January 1918 the struggle against the Central Rada became a national struggle. Ukrainian workers and peasants opposing the Central Rada were joined by troops from Soviet Russia sent at the request of the Ukrainian Soviet government. The workers of Ekaterinoslav rebelled against the Central Rada on Dec. 27, 1917 (Jan. 9,1918), establishing Soviet power in the city on Dec. 29, 1917 (Jan. 11, 1918). An armed uprising on Jan. 14–17 (27–30), 1918, led to Soviet rule in Odessa. Red Guard detachments drove White Cossack bands from the Donets Coal Basin in late December 1917 and liberated the entire Left-bank Ukraine in January 1918.

After Soviet power had been established in many towns of the Right-bank Ukraine, Soviet troops fought for the liberation of Kiev. These troops included Red Guard detachments from Kharkov, the Donbas, and Sevastopol’, V. M. Primakov’s Red Cossack Regiment, and Petrograd and Moscow Red Guard detachments. An uprising led by the Bolshevik Revolutionary Committee, whose members included A. V. Ivanov and Ia. B. Ga-marnik, broke out in Kiev on Jan. 16 (29), 1918. The Arsenal Plant became the center of the uprising. The rebels continued the fight until the arrival of Soviet troops, who liberated Kiev on Jan. 26 (Feb. 8), 1918.

The initial period of peaceful socialist construction in the Ukraine was of short duration. Having imposed on Soviet Russia the rapacious Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918, the German and Austro-Hungarian imperialists moved their forces into the Ukraine on the basis of an agreement concluded with the Central Rada on Jan. 27 (Feb. 9), 1918, by which the latter agreed to accept German military aid against Soviet Russia. The Ukrainian working people were supported by Soviet Russia in their struggle against the invaders. Five Soviet armies were formed in the Ukraine under the command of V. A. Antonov-Ovseenko. Fierce battles were fought around Bakhmach, at Kharkov and Lugansk, and elsewhere. Nevertheless, the numerically and technically superior Austro-German forces captured Kiev, Chernigov, Odessa, and Poltava in March and Ekaterinoslav, Kharkov, and Simferopol’ in April. The Central Rada returned to the Ukraine with the invaders, who used it for their political aims and then abolished it in late April. On Apr. 29,1918, the former tsarist general P. P. Skoropadskii was proclaimed hetmán of the Ukraine.

In the summer of 1918 uprisings against the occupation forces broke out in Kiev, Poltava, Chernigov, and other provinces. The Ukrainian Bolsheviks led the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian working people. At the First Congress of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of the Ukraine, held in Moscow on July 5–12, the Communist Party of the Ukraine was officially established as an integral part of the unified RCP(B). The All-Ukrainian Central Military Revolutionary Committee was set up to lead the insurrections of the Ukrainian population against the German invaders. Revolutions broke out in Austria-Hungary in October and November and in Germany in November. After the Soviet government annulled the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on November 13, the expulsion of the invaders from the Ukraine was begun with the military aid of the RSFSR.

The exploiting system found a defender in the Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists led by S. V. Petliura. The bourgeois nationalist Ukrainian Directory, headed by V. K. Vinnichenko and Petliura, seized power in Kiev on December 14 and established a brutal counterrevolutionary regime. In late 1918, Entente troops entered the southern Ukraine. In Odessa the underground oblast committee of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of the Ukraine and its Foreign Board conducted revolutionary work among the interventionist troops. Partisan detachments were formed to fight the interventionists. In January and February 1919 Soviet troops liberated Kharkov, Poltava, Ekaterinoslav, and other cities from the Petliura gangs. Kiev was liberated on Feb. 5,1919. On Mar. 10, 1919, the Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets adopted the first constitution of the Ukrainian SSR. G. I. Petrovskii was elected chairman of the Central Executive Committee. In April 1919 revolts broke out among the crews of interventionist ships in Odessa, Sevastopol’, and Kerch’. Soviet troops liberated Kherson and Nikolaev in March and Odessa, Simferopol’, and Sevastopol’ in April.

The Ukrainian SSR, the RSFSR, and other Soviet republics concluded a political and military alliance, confirmed by the June 1,1919, decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Under the alliance they merged their armed forces, economy, and finances.

In 1918 and early 1919 the revolutionary movement spread across the western Ukrainian lands, encompassing eastern Galicia, the northern Bucovina, and the Transcarpathian Ukraine. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary the movement grew stronger. At the People’s Veche (assembly) held in Chernovtsy on Nov. 3,1918, workers demanded reunification with the Soviet Ukraine. The same demand was expressed by the Transcarpathian National Assembly, which met on Jan. 21, 1919, in Khust. The popular masses of eastern Galicia resisted the counterrevolutionary government of the so-called People’s Republic of the Western Ukraine (ZUNR), founded in early November 1918 in L’vov. In January 1919, ZUNR’s leaders made an alliance with Petliura’s supporters to fight Soviet power in the Ukraine. A communist-led uprising that broke out in Drogobych on April 14–15 was brutally suppressed.

The policies of the ZUNR government led to the occupation of the republic by bourgeois-landlord Poland in July 1919. In November 1918 the northern Bucovina had been absorbed by bo-yar-dominated Rumania against the wishes of its population. The Entente imperialists gave Transcarpathia to bourgeois Czechoslovakia. The working people of the western Ukraine, the northern Bucovina, and Transcarpathia never ceased to struggle for reunification with the Soviet Ukraine and for entry into the family of Soviet peoples.

A. I. Denikin’s White Guard troops launched an offensive in the spring of 1919, capturing a large part of the Ukraine by autumn. The Denikin regime restored the old social order in the Ukraine, and during its reign of terror thousands of Soviet people lost their lives. A strong Ukrainian partisan movement emerged under the leadership of the Frontline Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Ukraine, headed by S. V. Kosior. The Red Army’s counteroffensive in the fall of 1919 signaled the liberation of the Ukraine. Soviet troops entered Kharkov on December 12, Kiev on December 16, and Odessa on February 7. The White Guards were driven out of the Donets Coal Basin, but some of them gained a foothold in the Crimea (seeWRANGELEVSHCHINA).

Encouraged by the Western powers, bourgeois Poland began the Soviet-Polish War of 1920. Polish troops invaded the Ukraine, capturing Kiev on May 6. The Fourth All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, held in Kharkov on May 16–20,1920, called on the Ukrainian working people to fight the interventionists. In the course of the Kiev Operation the First Cavalry Army broke through the Polish front on June 5 and liberated Kiev on June 12. Continuing their offensive, Soviet troops liberated the Right-bank Ukraine and part of eastern Galicia, where the Galician Soviet Socialist Republic was set up. In September, Poland recaptured all of eastern Galicia and part of Volyn’. A truce signed in October 1920 was followed by the Treaty of Riga in 1921. In the course of the Perekop-Chongar Operation of 1920, the Red Army drove Wrangel’s troops out of the regions adjoining the Crimea in October and November and took the Perekop by storm on November 9. Soviet troops liberated Simferopol’ on November 13, Sevastopol’ on November 15, and Kerch’ on November 16.

From 1918 to 1920 the Ukraine, like the other fraternal Soviet republics, witnessed not only the rout of foreign and domestic counterrevolutionary forces but also a further strengthening of the friendship among the peoples of the socialist state. At this time, the revolutionary forces of the Ukrainian people were consolidated, the alliance between the working class and the peasantry was strengthened, and a socialist industry and agriculture emerged.

Socialist construction, 1921–41. Substantial socialist transformations had taken place in the Ukraine by the end of the Civil War. Industrial enterprises, including many small ones, had been nationalized, as well as transportation and the banking system. Noblemen’s estates had been abolished, and Lenin’s Decree on Land had been promulgated throughout the Ukraine. Committees of the Poor had been formed in the countryside to strengthen Soviet power. The school system had been separated from the church and the church from the state.

The Ukraine embarked on socialist construction against enormous odds. In 1921 the gross output of Ukrainian heavy industry was only 12 percent that of 1913, and the transportation system was crippled. The sown area had declined sharply, and the number of livestock had decreased. The 1920 grain harvest was 38.5 percent below the 1913 level. Dozens of anti-Soviet kulak and nationalist gangs supported by the imperialist states were ravaging the Ukraine.

The Ukrainian working people built socialism in close cooperation with the peoples of Soviet Russia and the other Soviet republics. Representatives of the Ukraine participated in the Eighth All-Russian Congress of Soviets, held in December 1920. The plan of the State Commission for the Electrification of Russia (GOELRO) approved by the Congress included the restoration and development of the Ukrainian national economy.

The tasks of rebuilding the national economy were discussed at the Fifth All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, held in 1921. The decision of the Tenth Congress of the RCP(B) to adopt the New Economic Policy was of great importance for the restoration of the Ukrainian economy. The working people of the Ukraine were early supporters of the unification of the Soviet republics into one state. The Seventh All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, convened in 1922, endorsed the creation of a Soviet federal state. At the First All-Union Congress of Soviets, held in December 1922, the Ukrainian delegation ratified the Treaty on the Formation of the USSR, and the Ukrainian SSR joined the USSR as a full-fledged Union republic. In 1924 the Moldavian ASSR was formed as part of the Ukrainian SSR. Between 1923 and 1925 the old administrative divisions, 12 provinces subdivided into 102 districts and 1,989 volosti (small rural districts), were replaced by 41 okrugs and 706 raions.

In 1925 the Ninth Congress of the Communist Party of the Ukraine confirmed that the Ukrainian national economy had essentially been restored. Heavy industry was producing about 85 percent of its 1913 output, and the grain harvest was 91 percent of the 1913 level. Furthermore, the socialist mode of production had made considerable advances in all branches of industry.

As everywhere in the USSR, socialist industrialization was accompanied by socialist competition (socialist emulation). By the end of 1929 the Ukraine could claim to have about 250,000 shock workers. Between 1926 and 1929, 408 industrial enterprises were built and 421 were modernized. During the first five-year plan (1929–32) the gross output of large-scale industry increased by a factor of 2.3; the output of machinery increased fivefold, and that of chemicals more than fourfold. Moreover, 386 new factories and plants, among them the Kharkov Tractor Plant, and 30 large mines were put into operation under the plan. The newly built Dnieper Hydroelectric Power Plant produced more electric power than all of Russia’s power plants had generated in 1913. In the cities the socialist sector supplanted the petite bourgeoisie. Industrialization was effected with the help of the entire country. The largest industrial projects in the Ukraine were essentially all-Union projects, using machinery and equipment obtained from plants in Moscow, Leningrad, and the Urals.

On the eve of the mass kolkhoz movement there were about 5.2 million peasant farms in the Ukraine, more than 30 percent of them owned by small peasants, 65 percent by middle peasants, and 4.5 percent by kulaks. The kulaks owned more than 20 percent of the peasant plowland, 16 percent of the draft animals, and 14 percent of the productive livestock; they produced almost 25 percent of the commercial grain. After the mass kolkhoz movement began in late 1929, the Ukrainian working class sent about 8,000 of its members to work on the kolkhozes as part of the dvadtsatipiatitysiachniki (Twenty-five Thousanders). By Oct. 1, 1929,10.4 percent of the peasant farms had merged to form some 16,000 kolkhozes. Whereas in late 1928 there had been only two machine-tractor stations, in 1929 there were 37.

Collectivization was fiercely resisted by the kulaks, who sabotaged grain procurements, wrecked machinery, and burned kolkhoz property. In late 1929 and in the first half of 1930, kulaks in the Ukraine perpetrated 1,800 terrorist acts against soviet and party personnel and progressive peasants. Trusting in the power of the Soviet state and overcoming the resistance of the class enemy, the Ukrainian peasantry embarked on the path of kolkhoz development. By late 1932, when some 70 percent of the peasant farms and 80 percent of the sown area were owned by kolkhozes, the collectivization of agriculture had essentially been completed. The socialist mode of production prevailed in the countryside, as well as in the cities. With industry accounting for 72.4 percent of the gross product of its economy, the Ukraine emerged as an industrial and kolkhoz republic.

In 1932 the Ukraine was administratively divided into Kharkov, Kiev, Dnepropetrovsk, Vinnitsa, Odessa, Donetsk, and Chernigov oblasts. Four more oblasts were created in 1937, one in 1938, and eight in 1939. By 1941 the Ukraine had a total of 23 oblasts.

During the second five-year plan (1933–37) the socialist sector triumphed completely in the economy of the Ukraine, as throughout the country, accounting for 99.8 percent of the gross industrial output in 1936 and 97.7 percent of the agricultural output. The machine-building industry trebled its output, and the production of cast iron increased by 117 percent and of steel by 165 percent. Thirty-five blast and open-hearth furnaces were put into operation, and metallurgical plants were built, of which the largest were the Zhdanov Azovstal’ Works, the Zaporozhstal’ plant, and the Novokramatorsk Machine-building Plant. The living standard of the working people improved. From 1933 to 1936 the wages of industrial and office workers doubled, and the cash income of kolkhoz members increased by a factor of 1.8.

Socialist competition reached a higher level during the second five-year plan. In 1935, A. G. Stakhanov, a coal miner from the Donets Basin, launched the Stakhanovite movement. The five-hundreders’ movement, aimed at encouraging women kolkhoz members to raise 500 or more centners of sugar beets per hectare, was initiated by M. V. Gnatenko, M. S. Demchenko, and A. D. Koshevaia. The tractor driver P. N. Angelina became famous for her high labor productivity. Competitions for the fulfillment and overfulfillment of plans were held between the workers of Moscow and Kharkov and between the kolkhoz members of the Kiev and Moscow environs. The cultural revolution made great strides, and illiteracy was completely eradicated. In 1937 more than 5 million pupils attended general-education schools and more than 100,000 students were enrolled in higher educational institutions. A Soviet Ukrainian intelligentsia emerged to make important contributions to science, literature, and the arts.

The profound changes in the Ukraine’s economy and class structure were given legal sanction in a new constitution adopted by the Extraordinary Fourteenth Congress of Soviets of the Ukrainian SSR in 1937. Socialism had essentially been built in the Ukraine, as in the rest of the Soviet Union, and the kolkhoz system was flourishing. Moreover, a Ukrainian socialist nation had evolved in the course of socialist construction.

The gross industrial output increased by a factor of 7.3 between 1913 and 1940. During this period the output of heavy industry increased by a factor of 10, that of the coal industry by a factor of 3.7, that of ferrous metallurgy by a factor of 5.2, and that of the power industry by a factor of 23. As the primary coal and metallurgical base of the USSR, the Ukraine in 1940 produced 64.7 percent of the country’s cast iron, 48.8 percent of its steel, 67.6 percent of its iron ore, 50.5 percent of its coal, and 74.5 percent of its coke. The republic raised 25 percent of the country’s grain, 73 percent of its sugar beets, and 50 percent of its corn. In 1940 the Ukraine had 1,227 machine-tractor stations, 28,637 kolkhozes, and 929 sovkhozes.

During the five-year plans the number of office and industrial workers nearly trebled, rising from 2.3 million in 1928 to 6.6 million in 1940. Industrialization stimulated the growth of old cities and the rise of new cities, among them Gorlovka, Konstantinov-ka, Makeevka, Marganets, Kramatorsk, and Donetsk. City planning proceeded at a rapid pace. Along with changes in the appearance of Ukrainian villages, which acquired schools, clubs, and libraries, there were transformations in the daily life, customs, and psychology of the peasantry, in which socialist traits became more pronounced.

While the Ukrainian working people were successfully building socialism within the family of Soviet republics, their brothers in the western Ukraine, the northern Bucovina, and Transcarpathia were being oppressed by foreign capitalists and landlords. The governments of bourgeois Poland and Czechoslovakia and boyar Rumania hindered the development of the productive forces in the western Ukrainian lands, making the region a supplier of agricultural raw material. Most of the region’s enterprises were of the semiartisan type. The working people, politically disfranchised and socially and nationally oppressed, were in desperate straits. Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists collaborated with the Polish authorities and established several organizations, of which the largest was the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists.

When Poland was invaded by fascist Germany at the outbreak of World War II, the Soviet government took under its protection the life and property of the inhabitants of the western Ukraine. On Sept. 17, 1939, the Soviet Army entered the western Ukraine, and ten days later the People’s Assembly, elected by the working people, issued the Declaration on the Establishment of Soviet Power in the Western Ukraine. The assembly resolved to ask the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to admit the western Ukraine into the USSR and to reunite it with the Ukrainian SSR. On October 28 the assembly adopted the Declaration on the Confiscation of Landlords’ Estates and the Nationalization of Banks and Large Industry in the Western Ukraine. Meeting on November 1, the Extraordinary Fifth Session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR enacted a law admitting the western Ukraine into the USSR and reuniting it with the Ukrainian SSR. On November 14 the Extraordinary Third Session of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR confirmed the law admitting the western Ukraine into the Ukrainian SSR. In June 1940, under an agreement reached with Rumania, the, Soviet Union regained Bessarabia and acquired the northern Bucovina. On Aug. 2, 1940, the Seventh Session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR enacted a law incorporating the northern Bucovina and the Khotin, Akkerman, and Izmail districts of Bessarabia into the Ukrainian SSR. Bolstered by the socialist economy of the Soviet Union, the working people of the reunited western Ukrainian lands immediately began making far-reaching socialist changes.

Great Patriotic War (1941–45). From the very first days of the war, the Ukraine was the scene of relentless battles with the fascist German aggressors. Factories, scientific and higher educational institutions, and equipment and other property belonging to machine-tractor stations, kolkhozes, and sovkhozes were evacuated to the east from areas threatened by enemy invasion. More than 550 large enterprises were evacuated between July and October 1941, and some 3.5 million people were resettled. A party and Komsomol underground was formed, and partisan units were organized.

Fierce battles were fought at Kiev in July (seeKIEV DEFENSIVE OPERATION OF 1941) and at Odessa in early August (seeODESSA DEFENSE OF 1941). The heroic defense of Kiev and Odessa helped the Soviet Army foil the enemy’s plan for a blitzkrieg on Moscow, the Crimea, and the Caucasus. The Sevastopol’ Defense of 1941–42 was also crucial in the fight against the enemy. The fascist German troops occupied the entire Ukraine during the summer offensive of 1942.

After invading the Ukraine, the Hitlerites partitioned it. A Rumanian governor-generalship, Transnistria, was set up between the Bug and the Dnestr. Parts of the western oblasts of the Ukraine, renamed Galicia District, were placed under the governor-generalship of the Polish lands. The rest of the Ukraine, excluding such frontline areas as the Donets Coal Basin, were under the authority of the Reichskommissariat. A regime of terror was imposed throughout the Ukraine. During the occupation the fascists exterminated about 5 million people and transported some 2 million for work in Europe. Armed bands of Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists took part in the atrocities. Moreover, the leaders of the Uniate Church, headed by Metropolitan A. Shep-titskii, actively collaborated with the fascist German aggressors.

Neither mass killings nor terror could break the Ukrainian people’s will to fight. Partisan warfare began in the summer of 1941, when S. A. Kovpak, S. V. Rudnev, and A. N. Saburov took command of detachments in Sumy Oblast and N. N. Popu-drenko and A. F. Fedorov formed units in Chernigov Oblast. The Ukrainian Staff of the partisan movement was organized in the summer of 1942. Despite the fascist terror, numerous underground organizations fought the aggressors; among them were the Young Guard in Krasnodon (Voroshilovgrad Oblast), the People’s Guard in L’vov, and the Partisan Spark in the village of Krymka, Odessa Oblast (now in Nikolaev Oblast). More than 500,000 people joined the partisan movement and some 100,000 were active in the underground in the Ukraine.

The rout of the fascist German troops at Stalingrad signaled the liberation of the Ukraine. After the defeat of the enemy at the Kursk arc in the fall of 1943, almost the entire Left-bank Ukraine was liberated. Then began the fight for the Dnieper. Kiev was liberated on Nov. 6, 1943, during the Kiev Offensive Operation. In October 1944, after the savage fighting of the Kor-sun’-Shevchenkovskii and L’vov-Sandomierz operations, the entire Ukraine was liberated. One result of the Soviet Army’s mission of liberation was the expulsion of the fascist aggressors from Transcarpathia in October 1944. The working people of the region were given the opportunity to choose their social, national, and political development. Meeting in Mukachevo on Nov. 26, 1944, the First Congress of People’s Committees, groups that had been formed in the underground, adopted a manifesto proclaiming Transcarpathia’s reunification with the Soviet Ukraine. On June 29, 1945, the Soviet government and the government of Czechoslovakia signed a treaty making Transcarpathia part of the Ukrainian SSR. The next year the Transcarpathian Oblast was formed.

The Ukrainian people made a worthy contribution to the common struggle of the peoples of the USSR against the fascist German aggressors and Japanese militarists. Some 4.5 million Ukrainian soldiers fought on all fronts in the Great Patriotic War, and about 2.5 million of them were awarded orders and medals. More than 2,000 soldiers were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, which was conferred three times on I. N. Kozhedub and twice on I. N. Boiko, M. Z. Bondarenko, D. B. Glinka, A. I. Molodchii, S. P. Suprun, and P. A. Taran. More than 57,000 Ukrainian partisans and underground fighters were awarded orders and medals, and 97 of them were honored as Heroes of the Soviet Union. The title of Hero City was conferred on Kiev, Odessa, Sevastopol’, and Kerch’.

The fascist German aggressors caused enormous losses in the Ukraine. They destroyed and burned 714 cities and settlements and more than 28,000 villages, leaving about 10 million people homeless. They wrecked and pillaged more than 16,000 industrial enterprises, some 200,000 production buildings, 27,900 kolkhozes, 872 sovkhozes, 1,300 machine-tractor stations, and 32,930 schools, technicums, and higher educational institutions. The immediate material losses amounted to 285 billion rubles, calculated in prewar prices. Even before the war ended, the working people of the Ukraine, drawing on the fraternal aid of all the other peoples of the USSR, began restoring the economy of their republic, while simultaneously helping the other Soviet republics that had suffered from the fascist German occupation.

Restoration of the national economy and the creation of a developed socialist society. After victory, the Ukrainian working people joined the other Soviet peoples in implementing the fourth five-year plan (1946–50). Aimed at rebuilding the war-ravaged national economy, the five-year plan was fulfilled ahead of schedule. The 1950 gross industrial output exceeded the 1940 level by 15 percent. Coal extraction and metal smelting reached their prewar levels. The oil and gas industry grew rapidly, stimulated by the building of the Dashava-Kiev Gas Pipeline in the period 1946–48. The greatest difficulties were encountered in the restoration and expansion of agriculture, and the rate of development was slower there than in industry. The average annual grain harvest did not yet reach the 1940 level. During the fourth five-year plan the working people of the western Ukrainian regions carried out socialist industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture despite the fierce resistance of kulaks and armed bourgeois nationalist gangs.

After the war, the Ukrainian SSR became more active in foreign affairs. A founding member of the UN (1945), the republic was elected to the Economic and Social Council in 1946–47 and to the Security Council in 1948–49. A delegation of the Ukrainian SSR attended the Paris Peace Conference in 1946.

Its national economy restored, the Ukraine continued the joint struggle of the Soviet republics for the completion of the building of socialism. The kolkhozes were enlarged in 1950–51, and the Ukrainian working people built new factories and mastered new technology ahead of schedule. Socialist competition reached its peak on the occasion of the tricentennial of the Ukraine’s reunification with Russia (1954). To mark this event and the labor feats of the Ukrainian people, the Ukrainian SSR and its capital Kiev were awarded the Order of Lenin. In view of the Ukraine’s proximity to and close economic ties with the Crimea, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR issued a decree on Feb. 19, 1954, transferring the Crimean Oblast from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.

The Ukrainian working people celebrated the 40th anniversary of the October Revolution with outstanding achievements. The 1957 gross industrial output of the Ukraine was 20 times that of 1913, and the republic was producing about five times more cast iron, steel, rolled metal, and coal than all of prerevolutionary Russia. More than 1,000 large industrial enterprises were built from 1951 to 1958. Moreover, the grain harvest increased by 28 percent between 1953 and 1958. For its success in developing agriculture, the Ukrainian SSR was awarded a second Order of Lenin on Nov. 5,1958; the order was also presented to 15 of the republic’s oblasts. Many Ukrainian grain growers became famous throughout the country, among them G. I. Baida, S. E. Beshulia, E. V. Blazhevskii, G. E. Burkatskaia, P. F. Veduta, A. V. Gita-lov, E. A. Doliniuk, V. G. Litvinenko, M. A. Posmitnyi, and M. Kh. Savchenko, all of whom were twice honored as Heroes of Socialist Labor. The growth of industry and agriculture caused a steady rise in the living standard of the working people.

Between 1959 and 1965 some 900 industrial facilities were put into operation. Among the largest were the New Krivoi Rog, Tsentral’nyi, and Ingulets ore-concentration combines, the Dnepropetrovsk Tire Plant, the Kremenchug and Dneprodzerzhinsk hydroelectric power plants, and the Cherkassy and Chernigov chemical fiber plants. The movement of shock workers of communist labor arose and spread widely. In the late 1950’s and early 1960’s the building of a fully developed socialist society was completed in the Ukraine, as in the other Soviet republics.

The Ukraine became one of the most important fuel, power, metallurgical, and machine-building bases of the USSR and a republic with a large-scale chemical industry and a diversified food industry. Guaranteed remuneration of labor was introduced on the kolkhozes in 1966, and the next year a new system of planning and economic incentives was instituted in several branches of Ukrainian industry. In 1970 the Ukraine’s industrial output was twice that of the entire country in 1940. Between 1966 and 1970 the republic’s output of electricity increased by 45 percent, of cast iron by 27 percent, and of steel by 26 percent. Great strides were made in agriculture, whose average annual output was 16.9 percent higher than in the preceding five-year period.

The population of the Ukraine displayed great labor zeal and political enthusiasm on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution (1967), the 100th anniversary of V. I. Lenin’s birth (1970), and the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the USSR (1972). The Ukrainian working people successfully fulfilled the ninth five-year plan, during which total industrial output increased by 41 percent (electric power by 41.4 percent, cast iron by 12 percent, and steel by 13.9 percent), and average annual output of agriculture grew by 15.5 percent. Moreover, the fixed capital of the Ukrainian national economy increased by a factor of 1.5. Guided by the CPSU, the Ukrainian SSR embarked on the tenth five-year plan, adopted by the Twenty-fifth Congress of the CPSU in 1976.

Socialism has radically changed the Ukraine, which has become one of the major industrial and agricultural republics of the USSR. As members of a developed socialist society, the working people of the Ukraine are striving alongside the other peoples of the Soviet Union to create the material and technical basis for communism.

As of Jan. 1,1976, there were 3,000 Heroes of Socialist Labor in the Ukraine. In 1967 the republic was awarded the Order of the October Revolution in recognition of the Ukainian working people’s services to the revolutionary movement and to the October Socialist Revolution, their great contribution to the formation and consolidation of the USSR, their courage and heroism in defending the gains of Soviet rule, and their successes in communist construction. In December 1972 the republic was awarded the Order of Friendship of Peoples, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the USSR.

SOURCES

REFERENCES

V. A. GOLOBUTSKII, I. A. GURZII (to the 19thcentury), I. I. KOMPANIETS, V. E. SPITSKII (to 1918), V. A. DIADICHENKO, and IU. IU. KONDUFOR (since 1918)

The Communist Party of the Ukraine is an integral part of the CPSU. The first Marxist workers’ groups were founded in the late 1880’s and early 1890’s in Kiev, Ekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk), Odessa, Kharkov, and other industrial centers. Among the organizers of these groups were Iu. D. Mel’nikov, P. L. Tuchapskii, B. L. Eidel’man, and the exiled Social Democrats A. N. Vinokurov and P. V. Tochisskii. Under the influence of the St. Petersburg League of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class, founded in 1895, leagues of struggle were organized in 1897 in Kiev and Ekaterinoslav. The Ukrainian leagues of struggle took part in planning and convening the First Congress of the RSDLP, held in 1898. After the founding of the newspaper Iskra, a network of Leninist Iskra groups and organizations was created in the Ukraine. Prominent party workers from the late 1890’s included I. V. Babushkin, P. A. Krasikov, I. Kh. Lalaiants, F. V. Lengnik, M. M. Litvinov, G. I. Petrov-skii, V. A. Shelgunov, N. A. Skrypnik, A. G. Shlikhter, A. D. Tsiurupa, D. I. Ul’ianov, and R. S. Zemliachka.

After the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), a struggle broke out between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks in the Social Democratic organizations of the Ukraine. On V. I. Lenin’s instructions, V. V. Vorovskii, I. Kh. Lalaiants, and K. O. Levit-skii set up the Southern Bureau of the Central Committee of the RSDLP in Odessa in 1904 to direct the work of the Odessa, Ekaterinoslav, and Nikolaev committees. A rallying point of the southern Bolshevik organizations, the bureau pressed for the convocation of the Third Congress of the RSDLP (1905).

During the Revolution of 1905–07, the Bolsheviks of the Ukraine, guided by the decisions of the Third Congress of the RSDLP, urged the working class and the peasantry to struggle against autocracy and to support the minimum program of the RSDLP. Following the example of the proletariat of Ivanovo-Voznesensk, St. Petersburg, and Moscow, Ukrainian workers formed soviets of workers’ deputies in more than 50 cities and factory settlements, among them Kiev, Ekaterinoslav, Odessa, Nikolaev, Enakiev, and Iuzovka (now Donetsk). Ukrainian Bolsheviks made political, organizational, and military-technical preparations for an armed uprising. Workers’ fighting druzhiny and people’s militia detachments were formed in all the industrial centers. The revolt on the battleship Potemkin in June 1905 was a major step forward in the spread of the revolutionary movement. In December 1905, Bolshevik-led armed uprisings broke out in Gorlovka, Ekaterinoslav, Aleksandrovsk (now Zaporozh’e), and Kharkov, and political strikes took place in Kiev, Nikolaev, and many other cities.

The Ukrainian revolutionary organizations of the RSDLP gained considerable strength in the course of the revolution, their membership exceeding 20,000 by 1907. Prominent among those who organized and directed party work were Artem (F. A. Ser-geev), V. D. Bonch-Bruevich, S. I. Gopner, S. I. Gusev, E. M. Iaroslavskii, L. M. Knipovich, G. M. Krzhizhanovskii, G. I. Pe-trovskii, A. G. Shlikhter, N. A. Skrypnik, M. K. Vladimirov, and K. E. Voroshilov.

During the reactionary years (1907–10) the Bolshevik organizations in the Ukraine continued their revolutionary activity in spite of considerable losses. Guided by the decisions of the Sixth (Prague) All-Russian Conference of the RSDLP (1912), Ukrainian Bolsheviks strove to broaden and strengthen their ties with the masses and to propagate internationalist views. They sought to prepare the working people for more revolutionary battles and to unmask the Liquidators, Otzovisty, Trotskyists, and bourgeois nationalists. In World War I the Bolshevik party organizations of the Ukraine propagandized among soldiers, workers, and peasants Lenin’s slogan of turning the imperialist war into a civil war. They combatted social chauvinism and defensism (those who supported the war effort on the grounds of national defense).

In the February Revolution of 1917 the Bolshevik organizations of the Ukraine, guided by the Central Committee of the RSDLP(B), led the working people’s struggle against autocracy. After the overthrow of the tsarist government, they strove to win over the masses and to discredit the conciliatory and bourgeois nationalist parties. As the differences between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks in the RSDLP intensified, more and more independent Bolshevik organizations sprang up; by July 1917 they had about 33,000 members. In the summer of 1917 regional committees of the RSDLP(B) were formed for the Southwestern Krai and the Donets-Krivoi Rog Basin. That autumn the party established the Regional Bureau of Front and Rear Military Organizations of the RSDLP(B) in the Southwestern Krai to direct all work on the Southwestern Front. The bureau was subordinate to the regional committee.

After the Sixth Congress of the RDSLP(B), convened in 1917, the Ukrainian Bolsheviks prepared the working people for the overthrow of bourgeois and landlord rule. They were assisted by the Central Committee of the RSDLP(B), which maintained contact with more than 50 Ukrainian party organizations. Among those who were active in preparing the Ukrainian masses for the socialist revolution were V. K. Averin, E. B. Bosh, Ia. B. Gamarnik, S. I. Gopner, A. V. Ivanov, Iu. M. Kotsiubinskii, E. I. Kviring, D. Z. Lebed’, G. I. Petrovskii, V. M. Primakov, Artem (F. A. Sergeev), I. F. Smirnov (N. Lastochkin), K. E. Voroshilov, and V. P. Zatonskii.

The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd was attended by 57 Ukrainian Bolsheviks. At meetings and rallies held in Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav, the Donets Coal Basin, Kiev, Odessa, and other industrial cities and regions, workers expressed their support for the Council of People’s Commissars of the Russian Soviet Republic and their readiness to fight, gun in hand, for Soviet power in the Ukraine. Appeals to the Ukrainian working masses to oppose the Central Rada were issued on Dec. 3–5 (16–18), 1917, in Kiev by the Regional Congress of the RSDLP(B) of the Southwestern Krai and on Dec. 5–6 (18–19) in Kharkov by the Regional Conference of the RSDLP(B) of the Donets-Krivoi Rog Basin. Meeting in Kharkov on Dec. 11–12 (24–25), 1917, the First All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets proclaimed the Ukraine a Soviet republic. In January and February 1918 the military units of the Central Rada were defeated, and Soviet power was established throughout most of the Ukraine.

When Austrian and German troops invaded the Ukraine in February 1918, the Ukrainian Bolsheviks went underground and organized the struggle against the foreign interventionists and domestic counterrevolutionaries, while continuing to consolidate their forces. A party conference held in Taganrog in April 1918 and an underground party conference held in Kiev in May elected the Organizational Bureau and the Provisional All-Ukrainian Party Center. The two organizations made preparations for the convocation of a congress of Ukrainian Bolsheviks.

The First Congress of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of the Ukraine, held in Moscow on July 5–12, 1918, was attended by 212 delegates from 45 underground Ukrainian party organizations having a total membership of 4,364. The congress set the tasks of the Ukrainian party organizations in the struggle against the invaders and domestic counterrevolutionaries and adopted a resolution making the CP(B) of the Ukraine an integral part of the RCP(B). Emphasizing the loyalty of the Ukrainian communists to the Leninist principles of proletarian internationalism, the Congress urged the Ukrainian Bolsheviks to step up the struggle for the revolutionary unification of the Ukraine and Soviet Russia and denounced the nationalist slogan of “Ukrainian autonomy.” The decisions of the Congress led to the formation of the All-Ukrainian Central Military Revolutionary Committee, with A. S. Bubnov as chairman, and three underground regional committees of the CP(B) of the Ukraine, which were charged with leading the liberation struggle of the working people.

The program of the CP(B) of the Ukraine incorporated the decisions of the Eighth Congress of the RCP(B), held in March 1919, Lenin’s “Letter to the Workers and Peasants of the Ukraine on the Occasion of the Victories Over Denikin” (December 1919), the resolution of the Central Committee of the RCP(B) On Soviet Power in the Ukraine (confirmed by the Eighth Conference of the RCP[B], convened in December 1919), and other documents of the RCP(B).

During the Civil War (1918–20), the Ukraine was a major theater of military operations, and the CP(B) of the Ukraine focused on the struggle against the interventionists and domestic counterrevolutionaries. The Ukraine’s partisan movement was directed by the Frontline Bureau of the Central Committee of the CP(B) of the Ukraine, headed by S. V. Kosior. The Ukrainian CP’s Second and Third Congresses, held in October 1918 and March 1919, and its Fourth and Fifth Conferences, convened in March and November 1920, played a major role in mobilizing the working masses for the rout of the interventionists and domestic counterrevolutionaries, in restoring and consolidating Soviet power in the Ukraine, in creating a system of government, in reviving the economy, and in strengthening the unity of the Ukrainian party organizations.

Prominent among those who did party, state, and military work in the Ukraine during the Civil War were V. A. Antonov-Ovseenko, Artem (F. A. Sergeev), V. K. Averin, V. N. Bozhen-ko, A. S. Bubnov, V. Ia. Chubar’, F. E. Dzerzhinskii, I. F. Fed’-ko, M. V. Frunze, Ia. B. Gamarnik, Ia. A. Iakovlev, A. V. Ivanov, L. I. Kartvelishvili, F. Ia. Kon, S. V. Kosior, G. I. Kotovskii, Iu. M. Kotsiubinskii, N. G. Krapivianskii, E. I. Kvir-ing, M. M. Maiorov, D. Z. Manuil’skii, V. I. Mezhlauk, G. K. Ordzhonikidze, A. Ia. Parkhomenko, G. I. Petrovskii, V. M. Primakov, N. A. Shchors, A. G. Shlikhter, N. A. Skrypnik, I. F. Smirnov (N. Lastochkin), K. E. Voroshilov, and V. P. Zatonskii.

After the Civil War, the CP(B) of the Ukraine directed the efforts of the Ukrainian people toward the restoration of the national economy. The party’s Ninth Congress, held in 1925, summed up the results achieved in reviving Ukrainian industry and agriculture. During the building of socialism the party organized the republic’s working people in the drive for industrialization, the collectivization of agriculture, and the cultural revolution. Socialist construction was accompanied by the further ideological and organizational consolidation of the party along Leninist lines. The Ukrainian party organizations consistently opposed the “left-wing” communists, Democratic Centralists, Workers’ Opposition, Trotskyists, right-wing deviationists, local nationalists, and other antiparty currents and groups. Among the leading party figures of the prewar period were M. A. Burmisten-ko, V. Ia. Chubar’, M. S. Grechukha, L. R. Korniets, D. S. Ko-rotchenko, S. V. Kosior, P. P. Liubchenko, G. I. Petrovskii, P. P. Postyshev, A. S. Shcherbakov, N. M. Shvernik, N. A. Skrypnik, and V. P. Zatonskii.

During the Great Patriotic War (1941–45), the CP(B) of the Ukraine organized and inspired the Ukrainian people’s resistance to the fascist aggressors. More than 240,000 Communists were sent to the front, and some 68,000 Communists fought in partisan detachments and in the underground during the occupation. Underground party organizations, including 23 oblast committees, 685 city and raion committees, and 4,316 primary party organizations, operated behind enemy lines, rallying the Ukrainian

working people around the party and inciting them to struggle against the fascist invaders.

After the liberation of the Ukraine in October 1944, the CP(B) of the Ukraine, assisted by the Central Committee of the ACP(B) and the Soviet government, concentrated on eliminating the consequences of the occupation and on restoring and developing the national economy. In carrying out the decisions of the Nineteenth through Twenty-second Congresses of the CPSU, the Ukrainian communists enhanced the leading role of the party organizations in developing society’s material and spiritual life and in increasing the political activity and labor productivity of the republic’s working people. As they implement the Program adopted by the Twenty-second Congress of the CPSU (1961), the decisions of the Twenty-third through Twenty-fifth Congresses of the CPSU, and the resolutions of Congresses of the CP of the Ukraine, the Ukrainian party organizations are improving their guidance of the republic’s governmental, economic, and cultural development.

In 1976 the CP of the Ukraine consisted of 25 oblast committees (the Kiev city committee has the status of an oblast committee), 123 city committees, 115 urban and 451 rural raion committees, 63,892 primary party organizations, 57,703 factory party organizations, and 108,038 party groups. That year the total party membership exceeded 2.6 million persons. The CP of the Ukraine is directing the efforts of the republic’s working people toward the successful fulfillment of the tasks of building a communist society in the USSR. (See Tables 3a and 3b for party membership and congresses.)

REFERENCES

V. I. IURCHUK and I. F. KURAS

The Komsomol of the Ukraine is an integral part of the all-Union Komsomol. The first socialist workers’ youth leagues, known as the Third International Workers’ Youth Leagues, were founded in the Ukraine on the initiative and under the leadership of Bolshevik organizations in the spring and summer of 1917 in such industrial centers as Kiev, Kharkov, Ekaterinoslav (now Dnepropetrovsk), Odessa, Nikolaev, Iuzovka, and Poltava. The workers’ youth leagues of the Ukraine developed and matured through their struggle against Ukrainian and other nationalist youth organizations and against bourgeois and petit bourgeois parties, which tried to gain control over the youth movement. Members of the workers’ youth leagues fought for the victory of the October Revolution of 1917 and resisted the Austro-German invaders in 1918.

After the liberation of the Ukraine from the occupation forces and Petliura’s followers in the spring of 1919, the number of Komsomol organizations grew rapidly. By the summer of 1919 such organizations existed in almost all the major industrial and administrative centers and in a number of villages. The First All-Ukrainian Congress of Youth Organizations, held in Kiev in June 1919, founded the Komsomol of the Ukraine. During the Civil War (1918–20), the Komsomol of the Ukraine helped the CP(B) of the Ukraine bring about the defeat of the domestic and foreign counterrevolutionaries. Some 5,000 Komsomol members went to the front in 1919. The Second Congress of the Komsomol of the Ukraine, convened in 1920, decided that all Komsomol members 18 years of age or older would be eligible for military service. In August 1920 the Central Committee of the Komsomol of the Ukraine drafted 2,000 Komsomol members into the Red Army.

During the transition to peacetime socialist construction the Ukrainian Komsomol took part in the restoration of the national economy, in the fight against kulak gangs, and in the establishment of the first kolkhozes. During the Lenin enrollment in the party (1924), 6,640 Komsomol members joined the CP(B) of the Ukraine. Responding to the Lenin enrollment, 44,800 young

people joined the Ukrainian Komsomol between February and July 1924. The Ukrainian Komsomol assigned tens of thousands of its members to work on the construction projects of the first five-year plan. It made a major contribution to the industrialization of the country, the collectivization of agriculture, and the implementation of the cultural revolution.

For their heroic labor, the Komsomol organizations of the Dneproges construction projects (Dneprostroi) and the Donets Coal Basin received Orders of Lenin in 1932 and 1935, respectively. Ukrainian Komsomol members worked on the construction of the Urals-Kuznetsk Basin Combine, the city of Komsomol’sk-na-ure, and the Stalingrad Tractor Plant. In late 1935 more than 22,000 rural Ukrainian Komsomol members worked as tractor drivers and leaders of tractor brigades; 1,364 served as kolkhoz chairmen and 916 as chairmen of rural soviets; and about 1,000 assisted the heads of political departments of machine-tractor stations in matters pertaining to the Komsomol. P. N. Angelina, M. S. Demchenko, M. V. Gnatenko, and other women Komsomol members introduced innovations in agricultural production. The Ukrainian Komsomol was active in the campaign to eradicate illiteracy. In 1924 the Komsomol of the Ukraine took under its patronage (shefstvo) the Black Sea Fleet, the air force, and the border troops, sending thousands of its best members to serve there.

In the Great Patriotic War (1941–45) the Komsomol of the Ukraine mobilized the republic’s youth for the struggle against the fascist invaders. More than 1 million Ukrainian Komsomol members fought in the army in the field. Operating underground during the occupation were 12 Komsomol oblast committees, 265 Komsomol city and raion committees, and 670 other Komsomol organizations. Of the more than 25,000 members of the Ukrainian Komsomol who fought in partisan detachments, 8,875 were awarded orders and medals. The Young Guard, the Partisan Spark, and other underground Komsomol organizations displayed extraordinary heroism.

The title of Hero of the Soviet Union was conferred on more than 600 Ukrainian Komsomol members. In 1944 the Komsomol of the Ukraine was awarded the Order of the Red Banner for combat services. Orders of the Red Banner were awarded to the Komsomol organizations of the Hero-cities of Sevastopol’ (1948), Odessa (1949), and Kiev (1974) and to those of Krasno-don (1968) and Shepetovka (1968). Orders of the Patriotic War First Class were awarded to the Komsomol organizations of Kerch’ (1974) and of Pervomaisk Raion in Nikolaev Oblast (1968). Thousands of Ukrainian Komsomol members worked selflessly in industry and agriculture in the eastern USSR.

In the postwar period the Komsomol of the Ukraine mobilized young people for the restoration and further development of the national economy. Abiding by the decisions of the Thirteenth (1946) and Fourteenth (1949) Congresses of the Komsomol of the Ukraine, the Komsomol’s Central Committee and oblast committees sent about 500,000 people to work on major construction projects. In 1954–55, some 75,000 Ukrainian Komsomol members volunteered to help in the development of virgin and fallow land. When in 1956 the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Soviet government decided to open 35 new mines in the Donets Coal Basin, 32,000 Ukrainian Komsomol members opened 37 mines ahead of schedule, in less than a year. For this feat the Komsomol of the Ukraine was awarded the Order of Lenin in 1958. In 1969 the Komsomol of the Ukraine was awarded the Order of the October Revolution on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of its founding. For their heroic military service and feats of labor, 14 oblast, city, and raion organizations of the Komsomol of the Ukraine were awarded various orders of the Soviet Union.

The Ukrainian Komsomol faithfully assists the CP of the Ukraine in building the material and technical basis for communism and in giving the younger generation a communist upbringing. As of Jan. 1, 1976, the Komsomol had 5,814,944 members, of whom 1,961,000 were workers and 420,000 were kolkhoz members. The Ukrainian Komsomol includes 25 oblast committees, the Kiev City Committee (which functions as an oblast committee), 123 city committees, 115 urban and 451 rural raion committees, more than 68,500 primary organizations, 226,000 committees of factory shops, brigades, and university departments (which have the status of primary organizations), and about 70,000 Komsomol groups.

The Komsomol of the Ukraine directs the works of the republic’s Pioneer organization, which as of Jan. 1,1976, had 3,956,000 members belonging to 19,559 Pioneer brigades. (See Tables 4a and 4b for Komsomol membership and congresses.)

REFERENCES

A. I. KORNIENKO

The trade unions of the Ukraine are an integral part of the trade unions of the USSR. Arising in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ukrainian trade union movement attracted metalworkers, miners, railroad workers, and printers. Organizations were founded in the major industrial cities and centers. In the Revolution of 1905–07 the Ukrainian trade unions took part in the proletariat’s economic and political struggle under the leadership of organizations of the RSDLP. The many unions that were dissolved after the defeat of the revolution were revived in February and March 1917.

The large-scale development of trade unions in the Ukraine began after the victory of the October Revolution of 1917. By the time the First All-Ukrainian Congress of Trade Unions met in Kharkov in April and May 1919, there were some 500,000 trade union members in the Ukraine. The Second Congress of Trade Unions of the Ukraine, held in Kharkov in November 1924, elected the First All-Ukrainian Council of Trade Unions. In the early years of Soviet power, trade unions were founded and strengthened by A. A. Andreev, V. Ia. Chubar’, M. V. Frunze, S. V. Kosior, D. Z. Manuil’skii, G. I. Petrovskii, and N. M. Shvernik.

During socialist construction the Ukrainian trade unions, under the leadership of party organizations, participated in carrying out socialist transformations, the industrialization of the country, the collectivization of agriculture, and the cultural revolution. The trade unions played a major role in training and educating national cadres of workers and a national intelligentsia. They devoted much attention to developing the creative initiative of the working people, to improving work discipline, and to popularizing mass forms of socialist competition, such as the shock-worker and Stakhanovite movements. In these years work records were set by A. Stakhanov, N. Izotov, M. Mazai, P. Angelina, P. Kri-vonos, M. Demchenko, and other workers. In 1932 the Ukrainian trade unions had more than 4 million members.

In 1939, after the reunification of the western Ukraine with the Ukrainian SSR, the region’s existing trade unions were reorganized and new industrial trade unions were formed in L’vov, Rov-no, Lutsk, Stanislav, and other cities. Through the trade unions the working people became directly involved in the implementation of socialist changes in the western parts of the Ukrainian SSR.

In the Great Patriotic War (1941–45) the republic’s trade unions, responding to the party’s appeal, mobilized the working people for the struggle against the enemy and helped organize the partisan and underground resistance to the fascist invaders. They assisted in the evacuation of industrial enterprises and scientific institutions and organizations, found jobs and housing for resettled Soviet citizens, and gave much attention to the production training of the women and adolescents who came to work in plants.

Since the war the Ukrainian trade unions, under the leadership of party organizations, have been encouraging socialist competition among the working people for the restoration and expansion of industry and agriculture and for the further development of culture. The trade unions are organizing the drive for technical progress, increased labor productivity, and workers’ involvement in the management of production. They watch over the observance of labor legislation and are concerned with labor protection and safety technology and with improving the working and living conditions of industrial, office, and agricultural workers. Moreover, they assist in the communist upbringing of the working people.

In early 1976 some 20 million people were taking part in socialist competition in the Ukraine, and about 1 million people, 642,500 of them blue-collar workers, were participating in 20,816 permanent, plant and workshop production conferences. The republic’s 77,000 schools of communist labor are attended by almost 2 million blue-collar and white-collar workers and kolkhoz members. In 1976 there were 19 industrial trade unions in the Ukraine with more than 20 million members. The Ukrainian trade unions operate 3,313 clubs and houses and palaces of culture, 4,389 public libraries, 58,582 “red corners” (devoted to educational and propaganda facilities), and 5,476 motion-picture projection units. They also sponsor 87,832 amateur artistic groups and seven volunteer sports societies. The social security budget was 3,605,000,000 rubles in 1974, as compared to 915,371,000 rubles in 1964.

The Ukrainian trade unions participate in the work of the executive bodies of the World Federation of Trade Unions, in the International Labor Organization, and in UNESCO. The republic’s trade union organizations maintain contact with 880 trade union and labor organizations in 28 countries.

REFERENCES

V. A. SOLOGUB

General characteristics. A highly developed industrial and agricultural republic, the Ukraine has a complex group of heavy, food, and light industries, a well-developed and diversified agriculture, a large construction industry, and an extensive transportation network. The development of its economic structure and specialization is indissolubly bound up with the economy of all the other Union republics. One of the largest coal and metallurgical bases of the USSR, the republic holds second place in the USSR, after the RSFSR, in volume of material production and accounts for about 18 percent of the all-Union national income (1975).

The structure of the republic’s national income reflects the industrial nature of its economy. In 1975 industry accounted for 50.5 percent of the national income, agriculture for 21.4 percent, construction for 9.9 percent, and transportation and communications for 5.7 percent. That year production fixed assets, constituting 65 percent of the total fixed capital stock, were distributed as follows: industry, 31.4 percent; agriculture, 15 percent; transportation and communications, 13.1 percent; construction, 2 percent; and trade, public food services, procurement, material and technical supply, and other branches, 3.5 percent. Nonproduc-tion fixed assets accounted for 35 percent of the republic’s fixed capital stock in 1975.

Between 1965 and 1975 the gross social product increased by a factor of 1.8, and the national income by a factor of 1.7. The gross industrial output increased by a factor of 86 from 1913 to 1975 and by a factor of 12 from 1940 to 1975. Capital investments increased by a factor of 18 from 1941 to 1975. The Ukraine ranks second among the Union republics, after the RSFSR, in the amount of capital invested in its economy: 234 billion rubles were invested between 1946 and 1975. The republic’s industrial production fixed assets more than doubled between 1965 and 1975. The industrial output increased by 41 percent from 1971 to 1975.

Industry. The Ukraine’s industrial complex is developing rapidly. The highest growth rate may be observed in the industries on which the technical progress of the entire economy depends. Between 1940 and 1975 the gross output of the electric power industry increased 19-fold, that of the chemical and petrochemical industries, by a factor of 35.6, and that of machine building and metalworking by a factor of 38.4. Table 5 shows the growth rate of the gross industrial output.

Socialist industrialization has changed the structure of industrial production: the share of the means of production (group A) in the industrial output rose from 36 percent in 1913 to 62 percent in 1940 and 71 percent in 1975. During socialist construction great changes have also occurred in the branch structure of industry. New industries have been established, such as the construction industry and the manufacture of tractors, machine tools, instruments, radio and electronic equipment, turbines, aircraft, motor vehicles, mineral fertilizers, synthetic fibers, ferroalloys, and aluminum. Moreover, transformations have taken place in the social organization of industrial production. Large enterprises and production associations, of which there were 425 in 1975, have come to dominate industrial production.

At present, the republic’s leading industries are machine building, metalworking, ferrous metallurgy, and the fuel industry, which together employ 55 percent of the industrial labor force. Its food industry is of all-Union importance. The share of such branches as the electric power and chemical industries in the structure of industry has increased. Table 6 shows the growth in the major types of industrial output.

The postwar decades have seen notable changes in the geographical distribution of industry. A diversified industry has been created in the western regions, where L’vov, Chernovtsy, Rovno, Lutsk, and Ivano-Frankovsk have become major industrial centers. The L’vov-Volyn’ Coal Basin has been developed, and a mining and chemical industry is being established in the Carpathian region. The processing of sugar beets has become a major industry in the western Ukraine, where 15 new sugar mills were built between 1946 and 1975. Cities situated in former agricultural areas, among them Vinnitsa, Khmel’nitskii, Cherkassy, Sumy, Kirovograd, Kremenchug, and Poltava, are now important industrial centers.

FUEL INDUSTRY. The republic’s fuel and energy complex includes a large coal and gas industry, petroleum extraction, a peat industry, and a large electric power industry. In 1975 coal accounted for 61.2 percent of all the fuel obtained, natural gas for 30.8 percent, oil for 7.4 percent, and other types of fuel for 0.6 percent. The proportion of gas and oil in fuel extraction is steadily rising. The 1975 coal output was 9.5 times that of 1913 and more than 2.6 times that of 1940. The Donets Basin coking coal is used throughout the USSR. Hard coal is mined in the western Donets Coal Basin (Dnepropetrovsk Oblast) and in. The L’vov-Volyn’ Coal Basin. In 1975 the mining industry operated 349 enterprises, of which 342 were shaft mines and seven were opencut mines.

The petroleum industry has been expanding rapidly since the war, its output increasing 1.7 times from 1965 to 1975. Along with increased production in Ciscarpathia, the new Dnieper-Donets oil region, encompassing Chernigov, Poltava, and Sumy oblasts,

is being developed. Oil refineries are located in the Carpathian cities of Drogobych, Nadvornaia, and L’vov, as well as in Odessa, Kherson, and Kremenchug.

The gas industry has essentially been built up since the war. Most of the gas is extracted in the Carpathian region (L’vov and Ivano-Frankovsk oblasts) and in the Dnieper-Donets region. Since 1976 a third gas region has been under development along the Black Sea coast; it will supply gas to the Crimean Oblast.

The electric power industry uses coal fines, peat, liquid fuel, and gas (95.1 percent) and water power (4.9 percent). The largest electric power plants were built after the war. The main steam power plants include the Voroshilovgrad, Starobeshevo, Kura-khovo, Shterovka, Mironovskii, Zuevka, and Slaviansk plants in the Donets Coal Basin; the Zaporozh’e, Pridneprovsk, and Kri-voi Rog No. 2 plants along the Dnieper; the Zmiev Plant in Kharkov Oblast; the Ladyzhin Plant in Vinnitsa Oblast; the Tripol’e Plant in Kiev Oblast; and the Dobrotvor and Burshtyn plants in the western oblasts. The Dnieper Cascade, a group of hydroelectric power installations, includes the V. I. Lenin Dnieper, Kakhovka, Dneprodzerzhinsk, Kremenchug, Kanev, and Kiev power plants. The USSR’s first pumped-storage power plant was built near Kiev in 1975. The Chernobyl’, Rovno, and Southern Ukrainian atomic power plants were under construction in 1976. All the large electric power plants are included in a power system that is part of the Integrated Power Grid of the USSR. Through the Peace Power Grid the Ukrainian power plants are linked with the power grids of Hungary and Czechoslovakia.

FERROUS METALLURGY. The republic’s leading branch of industry, ferrous metallurgy, depends on local iron ore, whose output increased by a factor of 6.1 between 1940 and 1975. The principal mining region is the Krivoi Rog Iron Ore Basin, where the ore is extracted mainly by opencut mining. The Krivoi Rog Basin has five ore-concentration combines: the Southern, New Krivoi Rog, Central, Northern, and Ingulets. Iron ore is also mined around Kremenchug, where the first phase of the Dnieper Ore-dressing Combine has been put into operation. The iron ore of the Kerch’ Iron Ore Basin is concentrated and converted into agglomerate at the Kamysh-Burun Iron Ore Combine. The Zaporozh’e Iron Ore Combine has been built at the newly developed Belozerskoe iron ore deposit in Zaporozh’e Oblast. Manganese ore is mined in the Nikopol’ region.

The largest ferrous metallurgy enterprises are located along the Dnieper (Dnepropetrovsk, Dneprodzerzhinsk, Zaporozh’e, Krivoi Rog, Nikopol’, and Novomoskovsk), in the Donets Coal Basin (Donetsk, Makeevka, Enakievo, Kommunarsk, and Khartsyzsk), and on the Sea of Azov (Zhdanov).

Between 1940 and 1975 the output of cast iron increased by a factor of 4.8, that of steel by almost 6, and that of rolled metal by 6.8. The principal construction projects of the ninth five-year plan are the unique Model 3600 rolling mill at the Zhdanov Azovstal’ Works, the world’s largest blast furnace at the Krivoi Rog Metallurgical Plant, and a huge shop producing pipes for trunk gas pipelines at the Khartsyzsk Pipe Plant.

NONFERROUS METALLURGY. Before the October Revolution of 1917, the Ukraine had only one nonferrous metallurgy enterprise, the Nikitovka Mercury Plant. Developed in the Soviet period, the nonferrous metallurgy industry now includes the Dnieper Aluminum Plant in Zaporozh’e, the Ukrtsink Plant and the Nikitovka Mercury Combine in Donetsk Oblast, and the Verkhnedneprovsk Mining and Metallurgical Combine in Dnepropetrovsk Oblast. The Ukraine produces titanium, zirconium, and other nonferrous metals and alloys, as well as rolled nonferrous metals. The Pobugskoe Nickel Plant in Kirovograd Oblast was nearing completion in 1976.

MACHINE BUILDING AND METALWORKING. Employing 39.5 percent of the republic’s industrial workers, machine building and metal-working are the most important branches of heavy industry. Heavy machinery, chiefly mining and metallurgical equipment, is manufactured at Kramatorsk, Gorlovka, Druzhkovka, DebaP-tsevo, Dnepropetrovsk, Krivoi Rog, Zhdanov, Donetsk, and Kharkov. One of the leading enterprises, the V. I. Lenin Novo-kramatorsk Machine-building Plant, produces equipment for blast and open-hearth furnaces, mining machinery, hoisting mechanisms, forging and pressing equipment, and walking excavators.

The Ukraine produces all the major types of transportation machinery. Diesel locomotives are manufactured by the October Revolution Voroshilovgrad Diesel Locomotive Construction Works, and railroad cars by plants at Dneprodzerzhinsk, Kremenchug, and Stakhanov. Buses and trucks are built in L’vov, compact cars at the Kommunar Zaporozh’e Automobile Plant (which in early January 1976 released its millionth car), trucks in Kremenchug, and cargo-passenger vehicles in Lutsk. A major center of shipbuilding, Nikolaev produces oceangoing ships, tankers, dry-cargo ships, and diesel-electric ships. Kherson manufactures oceangoing ships, river cutters and diesel boats, and reinforced-concrete docks for seaports, and Kiev produces river and oceangoing vessels. Metal-intensive hoisting and handling equipment is built near the metallurgical bases of Dnepropetrovsk, Kharkov, and Stakhanov. Non-metal-intensive hoisting and handling equipment is manufactured in Odessa and L’vov.

The main centers of construction and reading machinery— Kremenchug, Kiev, Kharkov, Berdiansk, Nikolaev, and Slaviansk—manufacture excavators, scrapers, and bulldozers. Power-plant machinery and electrical apparatus are produced at Poltava, at Tokmak, and at Kharkov, which has a turbine plant, an electrical equipment plant, and the Elektrotiazhmash Plant (heavy electrical machinery). Machinery for the chemical industry is manufactured at the Frunze Plant in Sumy, the Bolshevik Plant in Kiev, and plants in Berdichev and Fastov. The main centers of equipment for the food and light industries are Kiev, Kharkov, Odessa, L’vov, Melitopol’, Simferopol’, Smela, and Karlovka.

Agricultural machinery, including tractors, beet- and corn-harvesting combines, grain loaders, motorized beet planters, tractor-driven planters, and equipment for livestock farms, is manufactured at the Voroshilov Plant in Dnepropetrovsk, the Red Star Plant in Kirovograd, a tractor plant and the Serp i Molot Plant in Kharkov, the October Revolution Plant in Odessa, the L’vovsel’mash Plant in L’vov, and the Petrovskii Plant in Kherson. There are machine tool enterprises in Kiev, Kharkov, Odessa, Dnepropetrovsk, Kramatorsk, and Khmel’nitskii.

The instrument-making industry, which developed rapidly after the war, includes plants in Kiev (electrical precision instruments), Kharkhov (control and measurement instruments), Sumy (electron microscopes), and L’vov (electrical measurement instruments). During the ninth five-year plan, machine-building enterprises have been built in the smaller cities, among them Uman’, Kovel’ (agricultural machinery), and Zhitomir (automatic machine tools).

CHEMICALS AND PETROCHEMICALS. The importance of the chemical and petrochemical industry in the Ukraine’s industrial complex is growing steadily. The industry produces a wide range of heavy chemistry products, varnishes, paints, synthetic resins, plastics, artificial and synthetic fibers, chemical and photographic reagents, and various agricultural and household chemicals. Heavy chemistry, the leading branch of the chemical industry, is confined for the most part to the cities of the Donets-Dnieper Economic Region (Severodonetsk, Slaviansk, Gorlovka, Dne-prodzerzhinsk, Sumy, and Konstantinovka) and to Kiev, Vinnitsa, Odessa, and Krasnoperekopsk. Potassium fertilizers are produced by the Khlorvinil Production Association at Kalush and the Stebnik Potassium Plant, both of which are located near raw-material deposits.

Paints and varnishes are manufactured in more than 30 major industrial centers. The largest enterprises are in Dnepropetrovsk, Donetsk, Kharkov (the Krasnyi Khimik Plant), Zhdanov (ultramarine), and Krivoi Rog (red lead). Facilities exist for the production of high-quality pigments, including titanium dioxide. The Rubezhnoe Chemical Combine in Voroshilovgrad Oblast is a leading producer of synthetic dyes. The manufacture of synthetic resins, plastics, and chemical fibers and threads is extensively developed in Donetsk (polyvinyl chloride resins), Priluki (phenol-formaldehyde resin and plastic goods), Odessa (manufacture of films and other products from resins), Severodonetsk (fiber glass and plastic goods), and Dnepropetrovsk (processing of phenolic resins). Chemical fibers are produced by the Khimvolokno production associations in Kiev and Chernigov and at chemical fiber plants in Cherkassy, Zhitomir, and Sokal’.

The growing petrochemical industry is linked to petroleum refining and the gas industry. The largest enterprises of the rubber industry—the Chervonyi Humovyk Kiev Plant and the Dnepropetrovsk and Belaia Tserkov’ tire combines—process synthetic and natural rubber shipped from other areas.

FOOD PROCESSING. Important for the economy of the entire Soviet Union, the Ukraine’s food-processing industry ranked second in 1975 in volume of output, after machine building and metalworking, and held third place in the number of industrial personnel, after machine building, metalworking, and light industry. The republic supplies the all-Union market with sugar, wines, alcoholic beverages, salt, confectionery, vegetable oils and animal fats, meat products, flour, and processed and canned fruit and vegetables.

The Ukraine is the world’s largest producer of beet sugar, and sugar refining is the leading branch of the republic’s food-processing industry. The republic’s 187 refineries are located in the forest-steppe zone and in the northern steppe zone. The Southwestern Economic Region, encompassing Vinnitsa, Cherkassy, Khmel’nitskii, and Kiev oblasts, is the main sugar-producing area. The geographic scope of the sugar industry expanded westward and southward between 1946 and 1975, when 15 sugar mills were built in Volyn’, L’vov, Rovno, Ternopol’, Kirovograd, Odessa, and Dnepropetrovsk oblasts. Distilleries in the Poles’e and in the sugar-producing regions manufacture alcoholic beverages from refinery by-products and potatoes.

The meat-packing industry is well developed in the major industrial cities and in Vinnitsa and Poltava. Among the largest plants built between 1971 and 1975 are the meat-packing combines in Kamenets-Podol’skii, Pervomaisk, and Aleksandriia. The oil and fat industry is flourishing in the steppe oblasts of Dnepropetrovsk, Donetsk, Voroshilovgrad, and Kirovograd. The largest fruit and vegetable canneries, an important branch of the food industry, are located in the south, where new plants have been built at Bar in Vinnitsa Oblast and at Nizhnegorskii in the Crimean Oblast. The Ukraine is a major producer of grape wine, with wineries scattered throughout the Crimean, Odessa, Kherson, and Transcarpathian oblasts. The famous Massandra Combine near Yalta produces some 40 brands of wine. The fish-packing industry is concentrated in the coastal cities of Odessa, Zhdanov, Sevastopol’, Berdiansk, Kerch’, and Izmail.

LIGHT INDUSTRY. The leading branch of light industry, textile manufacture accounts for 44.1 percent of the output of that branch. There are cotton-textile enterprises in Kherson, Ternopol’, Donetsk, and Chernovtsy and cotton-yarn enterprises in Poltava, Kiev, Novovolynsk, and L’vov. Wool cloth is manufactured at the Chernigov and Voroshilovgrad combines, silk at the Darnitsa Combine in Kiev and at the Cherkassy combine, and linen at the Zhitomir and Rovno combines. The garment industry, the second most important light industry, is concentrated in Kiev, Kharkov, Odessa, L’vov, and Drogobych. Leather goods and footwear are manufactured in Kiev, Voroshilovgrad, L’vov, Vasil’kov, and Berdichev. The concentration of production in light industry increased markedly between 1965 and 1975, when production associations were organized. Among the largest enterprises built between 1971 and 1975 are the Lutsk Spinning and Weaving Factory, a cotton combine in Donetsk, a tricot factory in Mukachevo, a footwear factory in Khmel’nitskii, and a porcelain plant in Druzhkovka.

BUILDING MATERIALS. The output of the Ukraine’s large and diversified building-materials industry increased by a factor of 36.2 from 1940 to 1975. Large production lines were put into operation at the Balakleia and Kamenets-Podol’skii cement plants between 1971 and 1975. Huge cement plants equipped with modern machinery have been built at Nikolaev, Zdolbunov, Krivoi Rog, Amvrosievka, Balakleia, and Kamenets-Podol’skii. Modern plants producing precast reinforced concrete, as well as housing-construction combines, have been built. Synthetic flooring and chipboard and fiberboard panels are manufactured on a large scale. Most of the construction materials enterprises are located in the Donets-Dnieper Economic Region and in Kiev, Odessa, and L’vov. Such nonmetallic construction materials as gravel, sand, and quarry stone are extracted in Zhitomir, Vinnitsa, and other oblasts.

LUMBER, WOOD-PRODUCTS, AND PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRIES. Logging, woodworking, and paper manufacture are extensively developed throughout the Carpathians and Poles’e. Many of the republic’s sawmills are located in the logging regions of the Transcarpathian, Ivano-Frankovsk, Rovno, L’vov, and Chernovtsy oblasts, although a large number are also found in unfor-ested areas, chiefly at Zaporozh’e, Dnepropetrovsk, Severodonetsk, and Kharkov. Plywood is produced in the Southwestern Economic Region, and furniture is manufactured in Kiev, Kharkov,

Donetsk, L’vov, and Dnepropetrovsk. The leading enterprises of the pulp and paper industry are the Zhidachov and Iz-mail pulp and cardboard plants, the Koriukovka Industrial Paper Factory, the Rakhov Cardboard Factory, and the Kherson Pulp and Paper Plant at Tsiurupinsk.

Agriculture. The Ukraine has a large and highly mechanized agriculture specializing in the production of grain, industrial crops, and animal products. Land crop production contributed 48 percent of the gross agricultural output in 1975, and animal husbandry, 52 percent. The Ukraine has land resources exceeding 60 million hectares (ha), of which 42.8 million ha are farmland (1974). The farmland includes 34.2 million ha of plowland, 2.3 million ha of hayfields, 5 million ha of pastures, and 1.3 million ha devoted to perennial plantings. The Ukraine ranks third among the Union republics, after the RSFSR and the Kazakh SSR, in the amount of land used by agricultural enterprises and in the proportion of arable land (80.6 percent). In 1975 there were 7,688 kolkhozes of all types (excluding fishing kolkhozes, 7,603) and 1,763 sovkhozes.

The republic’s agriculture rests on a strong material and technical base. In 1975 the republic had 371,700 tractors (compared to 94,600 in 1940), 283,800 trucks (54,900), and 82,500 grain-harvesting combines (33,400). The total power of electric engines on the kolkhozes and sovkhozes increased from 138,000 kW in 1950 to 2.7 million kW in 1965 and 10.2 million kW in 1975. The quantity of mineral fertilizers delivered to agricultural enterprises increased during the eighth and ninth five-year plans, jumping from 1.3 million tons in 1965 to 3.7 million tons in 1975.

Land reclamation projects have augmented the republic’s farmland. The Krasnoznamensk, Ingulets, Danube, and Tatar-bunary irrigation systems and the first phase of the North Crimean Canal have been built in the steppe zone, and the Ka-khovka Irrigation System is under construction. The amount of irrigated land increased from 514,000 ha in 1965 to 1,492,000 ha in 1975. In such swampy regions as the Poles’e, large areas have been drained. The Irpen’, Oster, and Trubezh drainage systems are among the most extensive in the republic. The drainage network increased from 1,373,000 ha in 1965 to 2,035,000 ha in 1975. The 1975 agricultural output, totaling 20.4 billion rubles, was 3.1 times that of 1913 and double that of 1940.

LAND CULTIVATION. In 1975, grain crops covered 49.2 percent of the republic’s cultivated area. Table 7 shows the structure of the sown area.

The gross annual grain output, averaging 33.4 million tons between 1966 and 1970, rose to 40 million tons between 1971 and 1975. The main food crop is winter wheat, although corn is also important, particularly in the steppe zone. In the Poles’e and in the Carpathian foothills, winter rye is the leading crop. The main groat crops are buckwheat and millet. Rice cultivation is expanding on the irrigated land in the southern steppe zone; the rice output increased by a factor of more than 3.5 from 1965 to 1975.

The proportion of the sown area that was planted to various industrial crops rose from 8.6 percent in 1940 to 12.0 percent in 1975. The leading industrial crops are sugar beets, sunflowers, and fiber flax. Sugar beets are grown mainly in the forest-steppe zone, where the natural and economic conditions are conducive to high yields. The republic holds first place in the country in the sown area and output of sugar beets. Sunflowers are the major industrial crop of the steppe zone. Table 8 shows the yield of the chief crops.

Fiber plants are also an important industrial crop. Flax is grown in the Poles’e, the western forest-steppe regions, and the Carpathian foothills, where it is a highly profitable crop. Hemp is raised in the eastern Poles’e and along the middle Dnieper. The Ukraine produces about 63 percent of the country’s hops, grown chiefly in Zhitomir, Rovno, and Volyn’ oblasts. Tobacco is grown in the Crimea, in Transcarpathia, and along the Dnieper.

Potatoes, a food staple and a major industrial crop used to make starch and alcohol, are grown chiefly in the forest-steppe zone (50 percent of the plantings) and in the Poles’e (about 30 percent). The republic is a leading producer of fruit and vegetables. The output of vegetables increased from 5 million tons between 1961 and 1965 to 6.6 million tons between 1971 and 1975, owing mainly to the establishment of large specialized vegetable and dairy sovkhozes in suburban and industrial regions.

The area devoted to orchards and berry plantings has almost doubled since 1940, reaching 1,122,000 ha in 1975. The 1975 harvest of fruit and berries was 2,510,000 tons. The Crimea, Transcarpathia, and the Black Sea Coast are important viticultural regions supplying the all-Union market. In 1975 the republic’s vineyards, covering 275,000 ha, yielded 1,187,000 tons of grapes. Medicinal and essential-oil plants such as mint, valerian, coriander, lavender, and roses are important commercial crops on the forest-steppe and steppe farms.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. The republic’s second most important branch of agriculture, after land cultivation, is livestock raising. The output of animal products increased by a factor of 2.8 between 1940 and 1975. Livestock raising is expanding in conjunction with crop cultivation and the raw-material processing industries. Livestock breeding, the main branch of animal husbandry, is extensively developed almost everywhere. Most of the livestock is raised on kolkhozes, sovkhozes, and other state farms. Table 9 shows the increase in the livestock population.

Dairy farming predominates in suburban areas and in the Poles’e. In the forest-steppe and in the Carpathians both beef and dairy cattle are raised. In the steppe the emphasis is on dairy farming, although large numbers of beef cattle are also raised. Mechanized cattle-fattening farms are becoming increasingly important. Hogs are raised in the forest-steppe and steppe, in areas well supplied with concentrated feed and food by-products. Fine-fleeced sheep are raised for meat and wool in the steppe zone and in the Carpathians, and coarse-wool sheep are raised in the Poles’e. Mechanized poultry farming is expanding, with the number of fowl increasing from 120.5 million in 1965 to 168.3 million in 1975. In poultry farming, production is highly concentrated and mechanized, and large poultry factories are being established. Table 10 shows the output of the most important animal products.

The republic’s agriculture is developing along the line of intensified production through chemicalization, the mechanization of crop farming and animal husbandry, irrigation, and land reclamation. In all branches of agriculture, intensified production has led to an increase in commercial output and consequently a growth in state purchases (see Table 11).

Beekeeping is flourishing in the Poles’e and in the forest-steppe region. Sericulture, based on the raising of the mulberry silkworm, is developing chiefly in the steppe region. Pond fishing is also expanding. There are specialized sovkhozes and farms for raising coypu, silver-black fox, and mink.

Transportation. Railroads are the chief means of passenger and freight transportation within the Ukraine and between the Ukraine and the other republics. The operational length of the railroad lines was 22,300 km in 1975, compared to 20,100 km in 1940. With 36.9 km of track per 1,000 sq km, the Ukraine has one of the densest rail networks in the USSR. In the Soviet period a substantial portion of the railroad has been electrified (6,600 km by 1975) and converted to diesel power. Today, almost all passengers and freight are conveyed by diesel or electric traction. In 1975 the railroad freight turnover was 458.9 billion ton-km, and 976.1 million tons of freight were hauled; the corresponding figures for 1940 are 71.9 billion ton-km and 200 million tons. The railroad freight consists chiefly of coal, coke, iron ore, mineral construction materials, cement, ferrous metals, machines, and grain.

The Donets-Dnieper Economic Region has the densest rail network and the heaviest freight turnover. It accounts for almost three-fourths of the republic’s outgoing freight and two-thirds of its incoming freight. Donetsk Oblast has more than 60 km of track per 1,000 sq km. The principal trunk lines are the Moscow-Kiev, Moscow-Donets Coal Basin, Moscow-Kharkov-Sevastopol’, Kiev-Odessa, Kiev-L’vov, Kharkov-Dnepropetrovsk-Kherson, and Krivoi Rog-Donets Coal Basin lines. Transit lines link the USSR with the Polish People’s Republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the Hungarian People’s Republic, and the Socialist Republic of Rumania.

Another important means of transportation is shipping, whose freight turnover rose from 16.6 billion ton-miles in 1960 to 102.5 billion ton-miles in 1975. Through the seaports of Odessa, Il’i-chevsk, Kherson, Izmail, Zhdanov, and Kerch’, the Ukrainian SSR and the other Soviet republics trade with more than 80 countries. Coastal vessels haul cargo between Kerch’ and Zhdanov and between Odessa and Novorossiisk. The republic had 4,500 km of river waterways in 1975, compared to 3,200 km in 1940. The freight turnover of general-use river shipping was 8.9 billion ton-km in 1975, when 42.3 million tons of freight were hauled. The corresponding figures for 1940 are 1.1 billion ton-km and 4.6 million tons. The major waterway is the Dnieper River (seeDNIEPER BASIN RIVER PORTS). After a series of reservoirs were built on the Dnieper, a single deep channel was created. The major ports are Kiev, Kanev, Cherkassy, Kremenchug, Dnepropetrovsk, Zaporozh’e, Nikopol’, and Kherson. The larger tributaries of the Dnieper—the Desna and Pripiat’—are also used for shipping. The Iuzhnyi Bug is navigable as far as Voznesensk; the Severskii Donets, from the mouth of the Lugan’; and the Dnestr, from Mogilev-Podol’skii to its lower reaches. There is shipping on the Danube. River cargoes include construction materials, coal, ore, petroleum products, grain, machines, refractory materials, and hardware.

Between 1940 and 1975 the length of paved highways increased from 29,300 km to 116,700 km, and the freight turnover of highway transportation increased by a factor of 35, reaching 58.6 billion ton-km. The Ukraine is crossed by several nationally important highways, including those from Moscow to Kiev, Moscow to Simferopol’ via Kharkov, Odessa to Leningrad via Kiev, Kiev to Donetsk via Dnepropetrovsk, and Kiev to L’vov.

Air transportation connects the Ukraine with the other Union republics and with many foreign countries. There are regularly scheduled flights between Kiev and the other oblast administrative centers. Since the war, an international airport has been built at Borispol’ near Kiev, and major airports have been built at Kharkov, L’vov, Odessa, Simferopol’, Dnepropetrovsk, and Zaporozh’e. In 1975 some 12.4 million passengers and 215,000 tons of freight were transported by air.

Pipelines are the newest type of transportation in the Ukraine, which has more than 14,000 km of pipelines. The USSR’s first gas pipeline, the Dashava-L’vov pipeline, was built in 1940. When it was put into operation in 1948, the Dashava-Kiev pipeline was the longest gas pipeline in Europe; in 1951 it was extended to Moscow. Gas pipelines connect the Carpathian and Shebelinka gas deposits with many Ukrainian cities, among them Kiev, Kharkov, Poltava, Dnepropetrovsk, Kherson, Krivoi Rog, and Odessa, as well as with cities in the RSFSR, Moldavia, Byelorussia, and Latvia. Completed in 1967, the Bratstvo gas pipeline, which runs from Ciscarpathia to Czechoslovakia, also carries gas to Poland. A 680-km section of the Druzhba oil pipeline runs through the Ukraine. Other oil pipelines include those running from Dohna to Drogobych, from Priluki to Gadiach and Kremenchug, and from the Northern Caucasus to Trudovaia (Donets Coal Basin).

Economic regions. The Ukraine encompasses three large economic regions: the Donets-Dnieper, the Southwestern, and the Southern.

One of the largest industrial regions of the USSR, the Donets-Dnieper Economic Region is noted for its heavy industry, chiefly mining and metallurgy. Coal, iron ore, salt, graphite, kaolin, and refractory and high-heat clay are extracted, and cast iron, steel, and rolled metals are manufactured. The region produces much of the republic’s nonferrous metal, electric power, transportation and agricultural machinery, tractors, and chemical products, including soda, mineral fertilizers, tires, chemical reagents, and industrial rubber goods. It also has a thriving construction materials industry. Some of the country’s largest steam power plants are located in the region. The region’s farms produce wheat, corn, legumes, sunflowers, sugar beets, hemp (for fiber), vegetables, and animal products. Vegetable and fruit farms have been established on the outskirts of the major cities. The region’s railroads, pipelines, and shipping facilities serve the entire country.

The Southwestern Economic Region has a well-developed food industry that produces sugar, alcohol, butter, processed fruits and vegetables, and meat products. Its machine-building industry manufactures equipment and apparatus for oil refineries and chemical plants, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, instruments, food-processing equipment, and construction and road-building machinery. Its chemical industry includes mining and chemical enterprises and plants manufacturing chemical fibers. The region also produces construction materials, lumber, and wood products. In agriculture, the chief crops are sugar beets, winter wheat, corn, legumes, fiber flax, potatoes, vegetables, and hops. Livestock raising is also important.

In the Southern Economic Region the leading industries are shipbuilding and ship repair, the manufacture of hoisting and conveying machines and agricultural machinery, fish packing, wine-making, and the canning of fruits and vegetables. The region’s farms grow sunflowers, winter wheat, corn, essential-oil crops, tobacco, and grapes.

Standard of living. The living standard of the population has been steadily rising during the years of socialist construction, especially in the postwar period. Between 1965 and 1975 the republic’s national income increased by a factor of 1.7, reaching 65.6 billion rubles, and the real per capita income increased by a factor of 1.6. Payments made to the population from social consumption funds more than doubled, rising from 7.4 billion rubles in 1965 to 14.9 billion rubles in 1974. The monthly cash income of workers and employees increased from 94 rubles in 1965 to 133.5 rubles in 1975. If payments from public consumption funds are included, the monthly income grew from 126 rubles to 183 rubles in that period. In 1976 the number of people receiving pensions reached 9,613,000, or 218 percent of the number in 1960.

The retail trade turnover amounted to 36.9 billion rubles in 1975, nearly 8.4 times the 1940 figure. Between 1940 and 1975 the number of savings banks almost doubled, increasing from 7,242 to 14,590, and the amount of deposits increased by a factor of almost 167, from 96 million rubles to 16,045,000,000 rubles.

Between 1961 and 1974 some 288.8 million sq m of new housing were made available. Of this area, 151.3 million sq m were built by state and cooperative organizations (excluding kolkhozes) and housing construction cooperatives, 63.8 million sq m by urban and rural industrial and office workers at their own expense, and 73.7 million sq m by kolkhozes, kolkhoz members, the rural intelligentsia, and other sectors of the population. The housing conditions of almost one-fifth of the population improved from 1971 to 1975.

REFERENCES

M. M. PALAMARCHUK

Medicine and public health. Both folk and monastic medicine are known to have existed in Kievan Rus’ in the tenth and 11th centuries. At the asylums founded by monasteries and churches for the sick and the disabled, medical treatment included amputation, the dressing of wounds, and trepanation. The most famous physicians of that time were Ioann Smerna and Petr Siria-nin. The Kievan princess Evpraksiia Mstislavovna is believed to have written the treatise Ointments, a compendium of 12th-century medical knowledge. Subsequently, the development of medicine in the Ukraine was interrupted by the Tatar-Mongol conquest and the invasions of Polish and Lithuanian armies.

The first physicians to hold medical degrees were Iu. Dro-gobych and the Byelorussian F. (G.) Skoriny, who lived in the 15th and 16th centuries. Specialized medical institutions were founded in cities in the 17th century. In connection with the reforms introduced by Peter I, instruction in medicine was offered at the Kiev Academy and at the collegia in Chernigov, Kharkov, and Pereiaslavl’. Medical faculties were founded at universities in the 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries prominent zemstvo physicians worked in the Ukraine, among them A. T. Bogaevskii, B. S. Kozlovskii, A. A. Abrazhanov, P. N. Diatroptov, L. I. Malinovskii, N. I. Teziakov, and M. S. Uvarov.

In 1913 the Ukraine had 47,700 hospital beds (1.4 beds per 1,000 inhabitants), 7,900 doctors, most of them general practitioners (one per 4,500 inhabitants), and 12,400 paramedical personnel. The mortality rate exceeded 25 per 1,000 inhabitants; among infants, the rate was about 200 per 1,000 live births. Infectious diseases were the main cause of death.

After the Great October Socialist Revolution a number of prominent medical men, notably N. M. Volkovich, L. V. Gro-mashevskii, D. K. Zabolotnyi, A. P. Krymov, B. N. Man’kov-skii, A. N. Marzeev, G. F. Pisemskii, V. P. Protopopov, N. D.

Strazhesko, P. I. Shatilov, and F. G. Ianovskii, helped organize the state public health system and contributed to the development of higher and secondary medical education in the Ukraine.

The fascist German occupation of the Ukraine from 1941 to 1944 caused great damage to the public health system. More than 500 hospitals and about 200 maternity homes were destroyed, as well as more than 1,000 outpatient clinics and polyclinics. The number of beds in medical institutions declined by 40 percent, and infectious diseases spread rapidly. After the war, epidemics of infectious diseases were eradicated through sanitary and coun-terepidemic measures. Since 1960 no cases of typhus, relapsing fever, malaria, poliomyelitis, or tularemia have been recorded, and the incidence of typhoid, children’s infections, tetanus, brucellosis, and other diseases has declined sharply.

In 1975 the birthrate was 15.1 per 1,000 population, and the mortality rate was 10; in 1940 the figures were 27.3 and 14.3, respectively. The infant mortality rate in 1974 was 19.3 per 1,000 live births (164 in 1940). The average life span was 71 years in 1974, compared to 47 years in 1926–27. The main causes of death are cardiovascular diseases and malignant neoplasms.

In 1976 there were 4,100 hospitals in the Ukraine with 578,000 beds (11.8 beds per 1,000 population), compared to 2,500 hospitals with 157,600 beds (3.8 beds per 1,000 population) in 1940. Of the total number of hospital beds, 128,500 were allocated for internal medicine, 74,400 for surgery, 85,900 for pediatrics, 32,500 for gynecology, 24,700 for neurology, 12,700 for otolaryngology, 10,300 for oncology, 6,900 for gastroenterology, 9,300 for ophthalmology, 3,300 for endocrinology, 1,900 for hematology, and 7,100 for urology.

In 1976 outpatient care was provided by 5,900 polyclinics and outpatient clinics and 17,400 medical centers were staffed by feldshers and midwives. Workers at industrial enterprises were served by 217 medical-hygiene units, 424 public health stations headed by doctors, and 6,100 public health stations run by feldshers. There were 4,500 women’s and children’s consultation clinics. Specialized preventive medical care was given at 215 tuberculosis dispensaries (five in 1913) and at 46 oncological and 108 dermatovenereal dispensaries (none in 1913). There were 5,500 pharmacies and 19,000 pharmacy stations in 1976, compared to 1,024 pharmacies in 1913. A network of public health counterepidemic institutions has been established, including 765 public health epidemiological stations.

In 1975 the republic’s preventive medicine institutions employed 157,000 doctors in all fields of specialization, representing one doctor per 312 inhabitants. In 1940 there were 35,300 doctors, or one per 1,200 inhabitants. Medical personnel are trained at 15 medical institutes, three institutes for the advanced training of physicians, and 108 medical schools. Paramedical personnel may take courses to improve their qualifications at medical schools and at oblast, city, and raion institutions of preventive medicine. Such courses are offered on a permanent basis in 18 of the republic’s oblasts. Conferences of secondary-level medical personnel are held regularly. The republic’s 45 medical research institutes employ 12,000 researchers holding doctoral degrees and 6,600 researchers with candidate’s degrees.

There were 486 sanatoriums and resort hotels with accommodations for 122,200 persons in 1975; the children’s sanatoriums could accommodate 35,100 persons. Among the most popular resorts are those of the Crimean Oblast, including the Southern Crimean Shore, those of the Odessa area, and the resorts of Truskavets, Morshin, Mirgorod, Berezovskie Mineral’nye Vody, Vorzel’, and Siniak. Expenditures on public health and physical culture totaled 1,943,200,000 rubles in 1975, compared to 155.5 million rubles in 1940.

Physical culture, sports, and tourism. Before the Great October Socialist Revolution the Ukraine had some 200 sports clubs, leagues, and groups with about 8,000 members and about 300 instructors. In several large cities sailing, rowing, and tennis clubs were established, as well as clubs for wrestling and weight lifting. There were also 42 soccer clubs with about 1,200 members.

Physical culture and sports developed rapidly from the early years of Soviet rule. The first mass physical-culture organizations were the groups and clubs formed as part of the program of universal military training (vseobuch). Ukrainian teams took second place at the first All-Union Sports Competition, held in 1928. In the 1930’s committees for physical culture and sports were founded in oblasts, cities, and raions, and physical-culture groups were formed at enterprises and institutions, including schools. The Ready for Labor and Defense (GTO) system became the basis for the physical-culture movement. By 1940 the republic had 73 stadiums, about 250 gymnasiums, 160 swimming pools and water sports stations, about 150 ski runs, and more than 13,000 athletic fields. Almost all of these facilities were destroyed in the Great Patriotic War.

In 1975 a number of voluntary sports societies, including army clubs, promoted physical culture and sports among the masses. Founded in 1958, the republic sports society Avangard consisted of 3,200 groups with 2.1 million members in 1975. Kolos, a republic sports society founded in 1950, comprised 13,700 groups with a membership of 2.6 million in 1975. The all-Union sports societies were Burevestnik, Vodnik, Dynamo, Zenit, Lokomo-tiv, Spartak, and Trudovye Rezervy.

In 1975 the republic’s 42,500 physical-culture groups had 10.3 million members and about 50,000 professional instructors, including 36,500 with a higher or specialized secondary education. Sports facilities included 850 stadiums with places for 1,500 or more people, 12,000 gymnasiums, 240 swimming pools, 126,000 athletic fields, 577 ski runs, and about 2,000 sports health camps and hunting and fishing lodges. Training in various sports was offered at 789 juvenile sports schools (281,000 trainees), 11 schools of sports mastery, two institutes and three technicums of physical culture, and 13 physical-culture departments in higher educational institutions. The republic also had 34 oblast and city physical-culture and therapy dispensaries.

The newspaper Sportivnaia gazeta, founded in 1949, has a circulation of 322,000, and the magazine Start, issued since 1957, has a circulation of 73,500. From 5 to 6 million people participate in the republic’s sports competitions, held since 1956.

Between 1966 and 1975 the republic’s sports organizations trained more than 700 international-class masters of sport, 10,200 masters of sport of the USSR, 154 world champions, 288 European champions and 352 champions of the USSR. As of Jan. 1, 1976, the title of Honored Coach of the Ukrainian SSR had been conferred on 680 persons, and 101 persons had received the title of Honored Coach of the USSR. More than 11 million people passed the tests of the Ready for Labor and Defense system from 1972 to 1975.

The most popular sports and games are track and field athletics (1.5 million participants in 1976), volleyball (1.1 million), soccer (more than 850,000), target shooting (more than 750,000), basketball (705,000), checkers (702,000), chess (about 700,000), table tennis (some 600,000), and handball (267,000). The republic has 28 major league teams, including soccer, basketball, volleyball, handball, rugby, and water polo teams. Kiev’s Dynamo soccer team, a seven-time champion of the USSR and a four-time winner of the USSR Cup, won a major competition held for European winners of national cups and the 1975 Supercup holder. The Shakhter (miner) soccer team from Donetsk won the USSR Cup twice. The Spartak women’s handball team (Kiev) was champion of the USSR from 1969 to 1976 and won the European Cup five times. Ukrainian athletes participating in Olympic Games won 113 gold, 75 silver, and 63 bronze individual and team medals between 1952 and 1976.

The republic’s abundant recreational resources include (as of Jan. 1, 1976) 113 tourist facilities, camp sites, and hotels, 78 travel and excursion bureaus, and 178 tourist clubs. There are also 79 all-Union tourist itineraries. The major tourist attractions are the Crimea, the coast of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, the Carpathian region, and Transcarpathia, as well as such old centers of national culture as Kiev, L’vov, Chernigov, Poltava, Pereiaslavl’-Khmelnitskii, and Kamenets-Podol’skii. Also popular are boat trips on the Dnieper and Desna and cruises on the Black Sea. In 1975 the republic was visited by more than 4 million tourists, including 67,500 from 42 countries.

Veterinary services. Preventive and antiepizootic measures have eradicated rinderpest, glanders, infectious anemia, equine epizootic lymphangitis, smallpox, and brucellosis of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. Trichophytosis, cattle hypodermiasis, and leptospirosis are on the verge of being eradicated. There are sporadic outbreaks of anthrax, blackleg, hog cholera, and swine erysipelas. Leukosis, cattle tuberculosis, and viral diseases of cattle and pigs continue to pose serious problems. The incidence of animal helminthiases is declining.

As of Jan. 1, 1976, the Ukraine’s 5,335 veterinary institutions and organizations included one republic veterinary laboratory, 25 oblast veterinary laboratories, 477 raion veterinary laboratories, and four Ascoli laboratories. In addition, there were 25 oblast and 477 raion disease-control stations, 1,189 district veterinary hospitals, 1,601 veterinary sections, 322 veterinary centers, 1,080 meat-dairy and food control stations, 119 city veterinary-sanitary stations, and 15 veterinary-sanitary teams.

In 1976 there were 11,584 veterinary doctors and 26,954 veterinary feldshers in the Ukraine. Advanced veterinary training is given at the Kharkov and L’vov zooveterinary institutes and by the veterinary departments of the Ukrainian Agricultural Academy and of the Belaia Tserkov’ and Odessa agricultural institutes. Secondary-level specialists are trained at 26 veterinary technicums. The leading veterinary research center is the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Veterinary Science (UNIIEV).

Amateur arts. Workers’ and peasants’ theaters were established shortly after the October Revolution of 1917. Workers’ clubs, people’s houses, Red Army drama groups, and various cultural-educational groups were organized in the 1920’s. Newly founded peasants’ houses promoted the successful development of amateur arts in the countryside. In subsequent decades amateur arts developed on a grand scale, improved organizationally, and reached a high artistic level.

In 1974 there were 216,400 amateur arts groups, including 37,800 choral, 34,700 music, 29,700 drama, 28,200 dance, and 3,400 fine and applied art groups. More than 800 of the best amateur arts groups, about 300 of them theater groups, have been designated people’s collectives. About 3.6 million people participate in amateur arts.

P. P. KHARLANOV

Natural and technical sciences, BEFORE THE GREAT OCTOBER SOCIALIST REVOLUTION. After the formation of a Ukrainian nation, natural science and technology in the Ukraine developed in close contact with the science and culture of the Russian and Byelorussian peoples. The opportunities for the growth of knowledge expanded greatly after the Ukraine’s reunification with Russia in 1654. An important center of learning was the Kiev Mogila Academy, founded as a collegium in 1632 and reorganized as an acad-rêmy in 1701. The academy’s curriculum included instruction in mathematics, astronomy, geography, architecture, and medicine.

In the 19th century scientific work was done at the University of Kharkov (founded 1805), the University of Kiev (1834), and Novorossiia University in Odessa (1865), all of which had scientific laboratories. Learned societies were founded, among them the Kharkov Society of Naturalists (1869), the societies of natural scientists in Kiev (1869) and Odessa (1870), the Kharkov Mathematical Society (1849), and the Odessa (1849) and Kharkov (1864) medical societies. Some scientific research was also done by museums.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries scientific research flourished at the University of Kharkov: V. G. Imshenetskii did work in mechanics and mathematical analysis, A. M. Liapunov developed the general theory of the stability of motion, and V. A. Steklov did research on hydrodynamics, the theory of elasticity, and mathematical physics. Also affiliated with the university were D. M. Sintsov, noted for his work in geometry, and S. N. Bernshtein, who investigated probability theory and the theory of functions. Concurrently, important mathematical research was conducted at the University of Kiev, where M. E. Vashchenko-Zakharchenko focused on the theory of the functions of a complex variable and V. P. Ermakov worked on mathematical analysis, algebra, geometry, the theory of functions, and mechanics. D. A. Grave and his followers founded a school of algebra.

Astronomical observatories were founded at Kharkov in 1808, at Nikolaev in 1821, at Kiev in 1845, and at Odessa in 1871. At the Kharkov Observatory microvibrations of the earth’s crust were studied using horizontal pendulums. Star catalogs were compiled, and research was done in theoretical astronomy, celestial mechanics, and astrophysics. The Ukraine’s first magnetic and meteorological observatory was built in 1895 in Odessa.

In the late 19th century M. P. Avenarius studied thermoelectric phenomena and the physical properties of liquids at the University of Kiev, where the Ukraine’s first chair of theoretical physics was established in 1884. The University of Kharkov initiated research in radio engineering in the Ukraine. Scientists at Novorossiia University conducted research on wave processes and earth magnetism. Russia’s first radiology laboratory was set up at the university in 1910.

The systematic geological study of the Ukraine, begun in the 19th century, gained momentum after the founding of the Geological Committee in St. Petersburg in 1882. Geological maps were compiled of the Dnieper-Donets Lowland, the Black Sea coast, and Volyn’-Podolia, and large deposits of coal, iron ore, and manganese ore were discovered. A team of geologists headed by F. N. Chernyshov and L. I. Lutugin established the basic structure and coal reserves of the Donets Coal Basin. Important contributions to the development of geology in the Ukraine include N. D. Borisiak’s concept of the Greater Donets Coal Basin, P. P. Piatnitskii’s study of the Krivoi Rog Iron Ore Basin, P. A. Tutkovskii’s investigations of Quaternary geology and geomorphology, and N. I. Andrusov’s work on the Noegene stratigraphy of the Pontic-Caspian Basin.

The study of physical geography began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1895, A. N. Krasnov published Russia’s first textbook on general geography; he also held the Ukraine’s first chair of physical geography, established at the University of Kharkov. Among others who advanced the study of geography were the meteorologist P. I. Brounov, who organized a network of meteorological stations along the Dnieper; the botanist G. I. Tanfil’ev, who did a comprehensive geographical study of the Poles’e, the Dnieper region, and the southern Ukraine; and the silviculturist G. N. Vysotskii, who dealt with problems of landscape science and studied the hydrological function of forests.

Research in general chemistry was initiated at the University of Kharkov in the early 19th century. In the latter half of the century N. N. Beketov, a professor at the university, published basic works on physical chemistry. Chemists at the University of Kiev focused on organic chemistry, particularly the reduction of nitro compounds. S. N. Reformatskii synthesized β-hydroxy acids, and other chemists developed a method of nitrating aliphatic hydrocarbons. N. A. Bunge conducted research on electrolysis. At Novorossiia University, L. V. Pisarzhevskii studied the structure of peroxides and peracids, and A. A. Verigo developed new methods for obtaining certain organic substances.

Zoologists and botanists at the universities of Kharkov and Kiev paved the way for the development of biology in the Ukraine. They worked on problems of plant physiology, evolutionary morphology, and animal physiology. A. Ia. Danilevskii and other scientists at the University of Kharkov inaugurated biochemical research in the Ukraine. V. A. Bets did pioneering work on the architectonics of the brain. Several medical men made notable contributions. V. P. Obraztsov developed the technique known as deep sliding palpation. In 1909–10, Obraztsov and N. D. Strazhesko gave a clinical description of myocardial infarction. Meanwhile, at Novorossiia University, E. Metchnikoff and A. O. Kovalevskii conducted their classic study of evolutionary embryology, L. S. Tsenkovskii devoted himself to algology and microbiology, and I. M. Sechenov worked on gas exchange in the blood and the physiology of the nervous system.

In 1871 biologists at Novorossiia University established the Sevastopol’ Biology Station, and in 1886 scientists from the University of Kiev were instrumental in founding a zoology station in Villafranca on the Mediterranean. The founding of bacteriology stations in Odessa, Kharkov (1887), and Kiev (1894) and of a public health bacteriology institute in Ekaterinoslav (1913) inaugurated research in epidemiology, which was continued by D. K. Zabolotnyi.

Handbooks on crop cultivation and animal husbandry appeared in the 19th century. Agricultural research was conducted at botanical gardens, notably the Kharkov Acclimatization Botanical Garden (1804), at the Poltava, Kherson, and Odessa experimental fields, and at the Nosovka, Uman’, Kharkov, and Nemerchany experiment stations. L. P. Simirenko conducted successful experiments in fruit growing. Work on the acclimatization and selective breeding of animals began in the late 19th century in Askaniia-Nova.

The first higher technical schools were founded in the late 19th century. The Kharkov Technological Institute was opened in 1885, and the Kiev Polytechnical Institute was founded in 1898. Established in 1889, the Ekaterinoslav Higher Mining School was reorganized as a mining institute in 1912. A. M. Terpigorev, M. M. Protod’iakonov, and M. M. Fedorov taught and did research at these schools. In the late 19th century technological research focused on the mechanization of blast-furnace production, metal science, the heat treatment of metals, machine building, theoretical problems of electrical engineering, and the theory of electric machines. Investigations in aerodynamics were conducted in Kharkov, and research in mechanics was done at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute and at the Ekaterinoslav Mining Institute (A. N. Dinnik).

Under tsarist rule the Ukraine’s few scientific and higher educational institutions were unable to pursue research on a large scale. The progressive efforts of scientists and specialists to promote science were not supported by the authorities. Only after the October Revolution did conditions favor creative scholarly activity for the benefit of the people.

AFTER THE GREAT OCTOBER SOCIALIST REVOLUTION, 1917–45. The Great October Socialist Revolution and the victory of the working people in the Civil War produced the conditions necessary for the development of the natural and technical sciences in the Ukrainian SSR. The Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was founded in 1919, with V. I. Vernadskii as the first president. Specialized research institutes were set up in Kharkov, Kiev, Dnepropetrovsk, and other industrial centers. The departments and laboratories of higher educational institutions greatly expanded their scientific work. The tasks set by the Communist Party—the socialist restoration of the economy, the industrialization of the country, the collectivization of agriculture, and the development of culture—determined the basic directions taken by Ukrainian science in this period. Fundamental and applied research in many branches of science progressed rapidly.

N. M. Krylov and N. N. Bogoliubov developed the basic principles of nonlinear mechanics. Important research was done on interpolation and mechanical quadratures. K. K. Simanskii, E. O. Paton, and F. P. Beliankin devoted much attention to construction mechanics, material strength, and civil engineering theory, research fields touching on the practical problems of building and repairing bridges and civil and industrial structures. A. N. Dinnik’s theory of elasticity gained wide recognition, as did G. F. Proskura’s work on hydrodynamics and the design of hydraulic turbines, pumps, and hydraulic transmissions.

D. A. Grave’s Ukrainian school of algebra became the theoretical basis for subsequent achievements in a number of related sciences. O. Iu. Shmidt did basic work on the theory of groups; D. M. Sintsov investigated the theory of differential equations; and M. F. Kravchuk worked on approximation methods for the integration of differential and integral equations. Mathematicians proposed a method of formally integrating various classes of differential equations with partial derivatives. Iu. D. Sokolov obtained important results in the analytic theory of differential equations applying his findings to celestial mechanics. Others studied the properties of analytic functions, and developed methods for the Chebyshev approximation of functions, proposed an axiomatic substantiation of the probability theory (S. N. Bernsh-tein), and worked on the approximation of functions by methods of functional analysis.

A notable contribution to the organization of physics research was made by A. F. Ioffe, I. V. Obreimov, K. D. Sinel’nikov, L. D. Landau, A. K. Val’ter, and L. V. Shubnikov. Research was initiated in such fields as low-temperature physics, nuclear physics, solid-state physics, theoretical physics, and radiophysics. In 1932, Ukrainian scientists conducted the first Soviet experiments on the fission of the atomic nucleus of lithium and obtained liquid helium. A. I. Leipunskii studied the interaction of atomic nuclei and neutrons of different energies. In 1934, D. I. Blokhin-tsev proposed the first quantum theory of phosphorescence. The first Soviet electrostatic accelerator of charge particles was built in the Ukraine in 1935–36, and the first Soviet radar device was invented there in 1939. In astronomy A. Ia. Orlov studied the deformation of the earth’s crust and the motion of the poles, and N. P. Barabashov founded a school of planetary study.

Geological prospecting led to the discovery of reserves of oil, iron ore, coal, and other useful minerals. Vernadskii had an immense influence on the development of earth science in the Ukrainian SSR. The publication of the six-volume Description of the Donets Basin (1914–22) and the works of A. A. Skochinskii and N. A. Starikov promoted the development of mining science. N. I. Lebedev and A. A. Shirokov studied the coal reserves of the Donets Basin, and V. N. Chirvinskii investigated the geology of brown coal deposits and participated in geological surveys of the Ukraine. A. N. Krishtofovich’s works on paleobotany became widely known. V. I. Luchitskii made a major contribution to the study of the petrography and geology of the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield. Other scientists developed the theory of the inorganic origin of oil and did research on the hydrogeology and climatology of the Ukraine.

The work of Ukrainian scientists in the technical sciences had important practical applications. E. O. Paton initiated research on electric welding and developed an effective method of flux-shielded automatic welding. G. M. Krzhizhanovskii and A. V. Vinter solved various problems of power engineering. Studies were conducted on the rating of complex power systems and power supply networks (V. M. Khrushchev), and electrical engineering equipment was developed. Several fundamental studies were done on the theory of turbodynamos, the theory of heat exchange, and general problems of power engineering.

Another important research field was chemistry and chemical engineering. L. V. Pisarzhevskii studied electronic phenomena in chemistry and the nature of oxidation-reduction reactions. Theoretical knowledge of the kinetics of reactions, catalysis, and electrode processes broadened. Heavy water was obtained in the USSR for the first time in 1934 by A. I. Brodskii, working in the Ukraine. The event was of great importance for the development of Soviet nuclear physics and for the use of atomic energy in the national economy. It also initiated a series of studies on the chemistry and use of istotopes. The techniques that had been developed for synthesizing cyanine dyes enabled A.I. Kiprianov to obtain new photosensitizers. Chemists also studied problems of electrolytic dissociation that were crucial for the development of organic and inorganic chemistry, hydrometallurgy, and other fields. V. A. Plotnikov’s investigations into the electrochemistry of nonaqueous solutions had a practical application in obtaining and refining several metals and making corrosion-resistant roofing materials. Other chemists worked on the theory of acids and bases and the general theory of electrolytes (N. A. Izmailov).

Biologists and medical men made valuable contributions to science. The Ukrainian school of pathophysiology, founded by A. A. Bogomolets, studied problems of fatigue, longevity, and blood transfusion. Bogomolets developed an antireticular cytotoxic serum on the basis of his study of the physiological properties of connective tissue. Biochemical research, a new field, led to major discoveries in the biochemistry of muscle activity (M. D. Ferdman). A. V. Palladin did important research on the comparative biochemistry of nerve tissue. Advances were made in the study of the processes by which cells are supplied with energy. V. P. Filatov developed methods for transplanting the cornea of the eye and for the use of plastic material on a round stalk in eye surgery and developed a theory about biogenic stimulators.

Microbiologists studied pathogenic microorganisms and developed methods of treating infectious diseases. The achievements in medical microbiology owed much to the work of D. K. Zabo-lotnyi. Notable successes were achieved in evolutionary morphology (I. I. Shmal’gauzen) and parasitology. In botany, V. I. Lip-skii and his associates embarked on the multivolume Flora of the Ukrainian SSR. N. G. Kholodnyi proposed a theory about phyto-hormones, and other botanists compiled guides to mosses and lichens. N. I. Vavilov had a marked influence on the development of plant taxonomy, genetics, selective breeding, ecology, and immunity in the Ukraine. Problems of mutation were studied, and work was done on the acclimatization of southern fruit and berry crops in the northern part of the republic.

At the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War (1941–45) the scientists of the Ukraine, like Soviet people everywhere, immediately joined the struggle against the fascist invaders. Many of the republic’s research institutes were evacuated to the east. The Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was evacuated to Ufa in July and August 1941. Many scientific institutions were reorganized, and related institutes were merged. Scientists and scientific teams concentrated on defense problems. Under E. O. Pa-ton’s direction, the Research Institute of Electric Welding of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR developed a technique for the automatic electric welding of tank chassis and aerial bombs, and it designed and produced the necessary apparatus and equipment. Scientists solved various problems of aircraft and motor building. They designed torque converters and hydraulic clutches for motor vehicles, tanks, and tractors that improved the maneuverability of vehicles and the combat performance of tanks. New types of high-quality cast iron were developed and widely used in machine building and in the manufacture of shells and aerial bombs.

A number of studies in applied mathematics were conducted, and new acoustic instruments for antiaircraft defense were invented. Physicists developed new types of ammunition, perfected optical systems, and invented new kinds of antifreeze. Research in nuclear physics continued. Medical scientists developed methods of treating wounded soldiers. Ukrainian geologists participated in mineral prospecting in eastern regions of the country.

The fascist invaders destroyed many scientific institutions in the occupied areas and removed equipment. In Kiev alone the damage caused by the invaders to the institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR exceeded 126 million rubles (in pre-1961 prices). About 1 million books were removed from the academy’s Central Scientific Library. Scientists and scientific institutions began returning to the liberated parts of the Ukraine even before the end of the war. The Academy of Sciences returned to Kiev in 1944. Despite the harsh wartime conditions, the party and government took vigorous action to revive the work of scientific institutions.

SINCE 1945. After the Great Patriotic War, the material and technical basis for science was restored in the Ukraine, and favorable conditions were created for the development of scientific research. The republic’s network of scientific institutions expanded until every oblast administrative center had higher educational institutions, research institutions, and planning and design organizations. Today, research is conducted in virtually all branches of modern science.

Mathematics. Ukrainian mathematicians have won acclaim for their work on the theory of nonlinear differential equations and the theory of nonlinear oscillations. N. N. Bogoliubov and others have worked out and mathematically substantiated asymptotic methods. They have worked on the method of averaging, proposed a general method of solving equations with slowly changing coefficients, and developed the method of integral manifolds. Criteria have been established for the stability of solution of linear differential equations with quasiperiodic coefficients, and methods of solving linear differential equations with partial derivatives have been elaborated. Studies in functional analysis have concentrated on the spectral theory of operators and the theory of space with an indefinite metric. Important results have been obtained in the geometric theory of differential equations and in nonholonomic differential geometry. Mathematicians have developed a geometric theory of convex surfaces with a regular metric and have done important work on the theory of surfaces with a limited outer curvature. Outstanding work has been done on the theory of the functions of complex variables, on the theory of quasiconformal mappings (to which M. A. Lavrent’ev made a major contribution), and on the theory of approximating functions.

Ukrainian mathematicians have developed the theory of stochastic differential equations, have studied the limit theorems for sums of independent random values, and have investigated the theory of random processes. They have made a substantial contribution to mathematical statistics, to the queueing theory, and to the theory of reliability. Fundamental research has been done on group theory, on the theory of matrices, on several sections of the Galois theory, on the theory of fields of algebraic numbers, and in linear algebra. Important contributions have been made to the theory of solvable and nilpotent groups, and a theory of linear inequalities over an arbitrary ordered field has been advanced. Work is being done on the history of mathematics.

Cybernetics. Studies have been conducted on the principles of cybernetics. One of the Soviet Union’s first computers, the MESM, was built in the Ukraine in 1951 by S. A. Lebedev. The all-purpose computer Kiev was designed in 1959. The experience gained in designing and building these machines was used to make computers of the second, third, and fourth generation. V. M. Glushkov developed a general theory of digital automatons and mathematical machines that served as the basis for analyzing and synthesizing cybernetic devices. Research is under way in analogue computer technology and in industrial, economic, and biological cybernetics. Scientists have formulated and worked out the basic concepts for an all-Union automatic system of data retrieval and processing to be used for statistical surveys and national economic planning. Automatic control systems have been introduced at enterprises with diversified production.

Mechanics. Important contributions have been made to the study of the dynamic strength of machine parts under variable stress and the fatigue of metal structural members. M. K. IangeF solved various theoretical and applied problems of aircraft mechanics, and G. N. Savin obtained significant results in his investigation of the concentration of stress around recesses in isotropic and anisotropic mediums. Scientists have conducted comprehensive studies of the strength of various types of new metallo-ceramic materials and have proposed methods for calculating the strength of products made of such materials. Research has been done on the strength, plasticity, hardness, and elasticity of many refractory materials at temperatures of up to 3500°C. Scientists have been studying the brittle strength of metals at very low temperatures and the stress condition and deformation of polymer and fiber-glass articles and structural members. N. V. Kornou-khov has worked on the strength and durability of core systems, and A. D. Kovalenko developed a theory of linear and nonlinear thermoviscous elasticity that takes into account the interaction of deformation and temperature fields.

Significant results have been obtained in the nonclassical theory of shells and in the study of dynamic contact problems (impact theory). The theory of elasticity and elasticity-plasticity problems have been studied by A. Iu. Ishlinskii and other researchers at the Institute of Mathematics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. The theory of the cold brittleness of metals has been investigated by N. N. Davydenkov. Scientists have investigated the dynamics of transients in machines and the dynamics of machines, taking into account the elasticity of the components. They have developed methods for calculating transients in the hydraulic and pneumatic systems of heavy machines. A significant contribution has been made to the development and design of aircraft, including the world’s largest airplane, the Antei. A. G. Ivchenko is noted for his work on aviation engines. Other research fields include the hydraulics of open waterways and hydraulic engineering.

Physics. A series of studies have been done on invariant-group methods in the theory of gravitation (A. Z. Petrov). The intermediate state in antiferromagnetic substances has been discovered and theoretically and experimentally investigated. G. D. Latyshev solved a set of problems relating to the interaction between gamma radiation and matter. Important results have been obtained in the physics of elementary particles and plasma physics. The discovery of the turbulent heating and anomalous resistance of plasmas is of great importance for solving problems of thermonuclear fusion and for developing plasma methods of accelerating particles.

I. M. Lifshits and his associates discovered and studied the exciton state in molecular crystals, solved many problems of the modern theory of metals, explained the relation between the topology of the Fermi surface and the properties of metals, and elucidated the electron energy spectrum of metals. S. I. Pekar developed a basic theory of polarons, and G. V. Kurdiumov advanced a theory of martensite transformations. Other physicists developed the physical principles of the plasticity, heat-resistance, and hydroextrusion of metals, studied problems of crystallization (V. I. Danilov), and did work on the physics and technology of particle accelerators and on high-energy physics. Research on superconductivity has yielded fundamentally new results, and superconducting solenoids with high parameters have been developed. The experimental and theoretical study of the tunneling of Cooper pairs has led to the discovery of the ultrahigh-frequency radiation accompanying this phenomenon.

A great deal of research has been devoted to low-temperature physics and its applications, to the physical and technical principles of optical electronics, to methods of generating millimeter and submillimeter waves, to the propagation of electromagnetic waves in material media in a wide range of frequencies, and to the physics of the generation and propagation of radio waves. A series of studies on the physical principles of controlling the frequency of laser radiation made it possible to create a set of lasers with a tunable radiation frequency. A new branch of ultrahigh-frequency electronics, called diffraction electronics, has been created, and a new class of electrovacuum generators with diffraction radiation has been developed.

Research in radio astronomy was given impetus by the building of the UTR-2 radio telescope. N. P. Barabashov and other Ukrainian scientists made a significant contribution to astronomy. Fruitful work has been done on determining the exact position and movement of celestial bodies, on the rotation of the earth, on the physics of comets, on the study of variable stars, on determining changes in latitude and polar motion, and on the physics of the planets, the sun, and the interstellar medium.

Physical geography. The study of the Ukraine’s natural conditions and mineral resources continues to expand. D. N. Sobolev and other geomorphologists have described the topography of the Ukraine and its various regions. The synthesizing monograph Climate of the Ukraine was published in 1967. The Ukrainian Hy-drometeorological Scientific Research Institute has conducted numerous studies of the distribution and dynamics of the major climatological and hydrological characteristics of the Ukraine. The physical geography of the Ukraine and its regions has been fully described. The division of the republic into geobotanical regions, carried out in 1962, was followed by a soil regionalization in 1965 and a physicogeographical regionalization in 1968. A comprehensive atlas of the Ukrainian and Moldavian SSR’s was published in 1962.

Geology. Geological research is focusing on problems relating to the geological structure of the Ukraine. Studies are being conducted on the age, stratigraphy, and petrogenesis of the Precambrian. N.I. Svital’skii has studied the origin of the ore deposits of the Ukrainian Crystalline Massif, and N. N. Dobrokhotov and S. P. Rodionov have investigated the ore deposits of the Krivoi Rog Basin. The origin of manganese and iron ore of the Kerch’ type has been investigated. Scientific prediction led to the discovery of the Dnieper-Donets oil- and gas-bearing region. O.S. Via-lov and his associates identified patterns of sediment formation and substantiated the stratigraphic division of sedimentary strata. K. I. Makov and other scientists are studying underground water, in particular mineral springs. Important work has been done on the geomorphology of the Ukraine and on theoretical tectonics. S. I. Subbotin and other geologists are investigating the abyssal structure of the earth’s crust and mantle and are creating models of the earth. The physical properties of rocks and minerals are being studied. Other research fields include problems of mineralogy and petrography, the geochemistry and cosmochemistry of isotopes, nuclear geochronology, the crystal chemistry of minerals, and the theory of ore formation.

Ukrainian geologists have compiled a general tectonic map of the Ukraine, a metallogenic map of the Ukraine and Moldavia, and maps showing the structure of the Dnieper-Donets Basin, the Donets Ridge, the Carpathians, the Black Sea Coast, and the Ukrainian Crystalline Massif. They have completed a tectonic regionalization of the Ukraine and have provided a general description of its geological structure and mineral resources. Geological research has produced such outstanding works as The Geology of the Ukrainian SSR, The Hydrogeology of the Ukrainian SSR, The Stratigraphy of the Ukrainian SSR, and the Atlas of Paleogeo-graphic Maps of the Ukrainian SSR and the Moldavian SSR.

Mining sciences. A number of important studies have aimed at improving the exploitation of mineral deposits. Scientists have determined the relations between the mining-geological, economic, and technical factors affecting the choice of mining methods and systems. They have solved the problem of selecting rational plans for opening coal deposits and choosing the techniques of working deposits of great depths, including the gas-filled and steep seams of the central Donets Basin. The western Donets Basin, a new coal region marked by complicated mining and geological conditions, has been explored and developed. Significant results have been obtained in studying rock pressure by mathematical methods (A. N. Dinnik) and in determining the quantitative indexes of rock pressure on supports.

Methods have been developed for predicting the presence of gas pockets in coal mines and for preventing sudden coal falls and mine explosions. Scientists have worked on the theoretical principles of ventilation and have proposed methods of ventilating deep mines and creating comfortable temperatures in them. The efficiency of iron ore mining has been raised by a new highly productive system of induced block caving using deep boreholes (N. A. Starikov). The theoretical principles of continuous operation in quarries have been developed, and new methods for the magnetic concentration of ores have been proposed.

Materials science. Scientists at research institutes attached to the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences and at specialized research institutes have improved the technology of obtaining and processing metals, have developed new methods of joining metals, have contributed to the theory of synthesizing new materials, and have designed new equipment, instruments, and machinery.

The scientific principles of electric welding have been further developed. A new method of joining thick metals, electroslag welding, has been developed by B. E. Paton and has been adopted in industry. The USSR was the first country to use this method (with forging) in the manufacture of semifinished products of unlimited weight and size for atomic, electric-power, and heavy machine building. New methods of refining and smelting steel and alloys by electron-beam and plasma-arc rèmelting have been developed and introduced in industry. These methods have given rise to a new branch of metallurgy, known as electrometallurgy. B. E. Paton and his associates have proposed a new method of electroslag remelting that makes it possible to obtain steel and alloys with special properties. Among other new techniques that have been developed and adopted are methods of electron-beam, argon-arc, and microplasma welding; blast welding methods; and methods of laser, condenser, and thermoreso-nance microwelding. A number of studies have been devoted to continuous flash welding, welding in a carbon dioxide medium, welding metallurgy, welding with covered electrodes and the making of such electrodes, and underwater arc welding and metal cutting.

Many problems of powder metallurgy have been studied. Metallurgists have developed the materials needed for new technological processes and have studied the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of these materials with respect to production conditions. A large number of metalloceramic materials with friction-resistant, friction, and filtering properties have been developed and tested under industrial conditions. Research has been done on the theory of solid-phase sintering, liquid-phase sintering, and activated sintering. Technological processes for producing rolled metalloceramic materials, both sheets and merchant shapes, from powdered metals and alloys have been developed and applied in industry.

A notable achievement was the development of methods of obtaining high-temperature materials: hard refractory combinations of transition metals (belonging to groups IV, V, and VI of the periodic system) with boron, carbon, nitrogen, silicon, and several other nonmetals. Many new compounds have been synthesized and studied. Scientists have developed the technology of producing plastic wire and thin-wall chromium tubes and have worked out the theoretical principles and techniques for obtaining new erosion-resistant reinforced composite materials using polymer matrices. They have devised methods of producing semiconductor alloys and high-temperature dielectrics. A wide range of metallization processes involving various materials has been studied, as well as the technology of combining such materials as diamonds and cubic boron nitride with metals. Techniques have been developed for soldering metal, glass, and various ceramic and other materials using graphites, carbides, borides, and other substances.

Soviet Ukrainian scientists were the first to propose the use of natural gas in blast furnaces. They have developed a highly efficient foundry technology, have investigated the thermophysical processes involved in the formation of large ingots, and have worked on important theoretical and practical problems of metal rolling (A. P. Chekmarev). New types of nickel-free construction steel and heat-resistant alloys have been developed, as well as a low-alloy high-strength semikilled steel to replace killed steel. Metallurgists have introduced into mass production a new technique of pouring molten steel and making sheet ingots using molds with a corrugated inner surface and highly effective melting intensifiers that are added directly into the stream of liquid steel. Steel plants have also adopted a newly developed technique for the electroslag smelting of sheet ingots and ingot slabs in an automatic movable grooved crystallizer.

A recently proposed adsorption-electrochemical theory of the corrosion fatigue of metals has led to the use of various types of protection from corrosion of loads. Scientists have solved problems relating to the limit equilibrium of brittle bodies with cracks, have proposed new methods of calculating the resistance of materials to brittle fracture, and have determined the critical temperatures of cold brittleness. New highly efficient tools made of synthetic diamonds and superhard metals have been devised for various types of mechanical processing.

Power engineering. Ukrainian power engineers have done fundamental research on the theory of heat and mass transfer and have used their findings to develop highly efficient power-engineering equipment. They have made a notable contribution to the development and fabrication of highly efficient and powerful steam-turbine units with high initial parameters. They have won recognition for their optimal planning of electric transmission lines and electric supply networks. The USSR’s first investigations into the problem of high-voltage transmission by direct current were begun in the Ukraine. The republic’s scientists have worked out and introduced systems for compounding generators of electric power plants (S. A. Lebedev), and they have developed techniques and apparatus for the automation and protection of power grids and power installations. Progress has been made in developing methods of rating complex electric circuits, methods of electrical and magnetic measurement (A. D. Neste-renko), and methods for the mathematical, electronic, and physical modeling of problems of electrodynamics and electric power engineering. The republic’s power industry is using newly developed compensating transformers, various new transforming, stabilizing, and balancing devices, and automatic measuring bridges. Effective techniques have been developed for lowering the temperature of turbogenerators heated up by magnetic diffusion flux and for raising their load capacity and reliability. The development of the theory of resonance transformers led to the construction of effective systems of stabilized current to be fed into lasers and electric-arc, electrohydraulic, and other equipment.

Chemistry. Ukrainian chemists are credited with a number of important achievements in the study of the mechanism and kinetics of chemical reactions (E. A. Shilov), organic synthesis, the theory of the structure of organic compounds, and the chemistry of complex compounds. Research chemists, notably A. I. Brodskii, made a major contribution to the chemistry of free radicals by establishing the structure of free radicals and their function in the intermediate stages of organic reactions. V. A. Roiter’s theory of heterogeneous and heterogeneous-homogeneous catalysis opened the way for synthesizing new compounds and for improving the technology of producing various chemicals. Scientists have advanced a general theory of the electronic structure of organic comulenes in different conformations. Progress has been made in the study of sorption and the development of new types of synthetic zeolites. B. S. Lysin has studied the properties of clay and of silicate and cement raw materials. New silica gels, new or-ganosilicon and other sorbents, and high-quality fillers, plasticiz-ers, and adsorbents have been obtained. Chemists have also developed new materials based on clay minerals for use in solutions in deep drilling for oil and gas. P. P. Budnikov has worked on techniques for obtaining binding substances, refractory materials, and other silicates.

Much attention has been given to radiation chemistry. Scientists have studied the tracks of high-energy particles, have developed chemical methods of measuring various types of radiation, and have conducted research on increasing the heat resistance and strength of polymer materials through radiation. A new theory of the oxidation of organic compounds led to the development of methods of chlorine bleaching of cotton yarn. A. I. Ki-prianov has worked on the chemistry of cyanine dyes and on the theory of chromaticity. A new class of dyes, called azastyryls, has been discovered, and new stable fabric dyes have been synthesized.

The republic’s research chemists have devised original methods of calculating the distribution of the electron density in organic molecules, and they have studied the action of organic catalysts in reactions involving the acylation of amines. They have developed a general theory of the electrode potentials of metals in fused salts, have established the dependence of electrode potentials on the atomic number of the element, and have proposed new polarography methods for fused salts. A new phenomenon has been discovered, the transfer of metals from the cathode to the anode during the electrolysis of ions in the fused state. The corrosion processes on the surface of metals have been studied, an electrochemical theory of corrosion protection for gas pipelines has been worked out, and corrosion inhibitors for metals have been proposed.

The chemistry of organic phosphorus and sulfur compounds has been developed and a large number of organic phosphorus, sulfur, and fluorine compounds with valuable properties have been synthesized and studied. Research has been done on the chemistry of psychotropic substances and on stereochemistry.

Research in polymer chemistry is flourishing. New polymers and ultraheat-resistant copolymers have been synthesized using cyanuric acid. Polymer materials such as polyoxazoles and poly-triazoles have been obtained, as well as semiconducting polymers. Chemical, radiochemical, and photochemical methods of altering polymer materials have been proposed.

In petrochemistry, the republic’s scientists were the first in the USSR to develop methods for using synthetic zeolites in the petrochemical and oil-refining industry. They discovered the reaction of the condensation of methyl-substituted aromatic hydrocarbons with methanol. Studies have been conducted on the chemical processing of hydrocarbon gases and on the use of gas fuels in industry. A method has been proposed for the automatic regulation and control of the chemical processing and burning of gas. Scientists have developed technological plans for the purification, ozonation, and chlorination of drinking water that are being used in water supply systems, and they have designed adsorption systems for the purification of industrial wastes.

Biological sciences. Notable progress has been made in the study of the biochemistry of proteins, enzymes, and vitamins, in plant cytology and embryology, in the study of diseases of cultivated plants, and in controlling crop pests. The Ukrainian school of biochemists founded by A. V. Palladin established the biochemical composition of various parts of the nervous system with respect to its functions, studied changes in the composition and metabolism of the nervous system in the course of ontogenesis and phylogenesis, explained the nature of energy metabolism in the brain under various functional conditions, identified and studied a number of specific proteins and enzymes of the nervous system, and studied the biochemical principles governing the effect of various neurotropic substances on biochemical processes in the brain. Research has been done on fat metabolism and on the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and new intermediate products involved in these processes have been discovered. Several purified and crystalline enzymes have been identified, and a technology for obtaining glucosidase and catatase has been developed.

P. G. Kostiuk and other Ukrainian physiologists advanced new ideas on the physical and chemical basis of excitation and inhibition. For the first time in the USSR, instruments were invented for drawing off potentials from individual nerve cells, and methods were developed for using specialized computers to analyze electrophysiological research on neurons. Ukrainian physiologists made a major contribution to the study of the physiology of the nervous system, digestion, and blood circulation and to research on the exhaustion and renewal of physiological processes. They advanced several hypotheses on the physiology of endocrine functions and developed new methods for the electrical stimulation of the heart.

Another important research field is microbiology. New medicinal preparations for controlling bacteria have been developed, notably the microcide antiobiotics produced by N. M. Pidoplich-ko. Researchers are extracting antibiotics from fungi and higher plants. Research in industrial microbiology has expanded. New strains of yeast have been developed, and several new types of raw material have been discovered for synthesizing protein-vitamin concentrates from petroleum hydrocarbons. New strains of Azotobacter have been produced, and new data have been obtained on the molecular mechanisms governing protein synthesis.

The patterns of plant resistance to unfavorable conditions such as radiation, drought, and frost and the ways of increasing such resistance have been investigated by A. I. Zadontsev. Botanists and zoologists have conducted systematic studies of the flora and fauna of the Ukraine. Multivolume works on the republic’s flora and fauna have been published, as well as guides and handbooks for the study of plants and animals. Botanical studies served as the basis for land reclamation projects covering large areas and for the cultivation of high-yield varieties of sugar beets, winter rye, and other important crops. The republic’s zoologists provided the scientific foundation for completely halting the reproduction of locusts and beet webworms and for minimizing the reproduction of harmful rodents and beet weevils.

Ukrainian hydrobiologists are studying the life and biological resources in the republic’s seas, rivers, and lakes. The construction of large reservoirs on the Dnieper prompted research on the development of dense masses of aquatic vegetation and the fauna inhabiting them, on the patterns of fish spawning (V. A. Mov-chan), and on the formation of plankton and benthos. Comprehensive studies on water bloom have been initiated. Hydrobio-logical research on the Black Sea placed the fishing industry on a scientific basis. Biologists have advanced the theory of the hypo-neuston, groups of living organisms that live below the surface film of seas and that play an important role in the life of many marine organisms.

The achievements of Ukrainian biologists have provided a firm basis for the further development of the medical and agricultural sciences in the republic.

Medicine. Medical scientists are working on measures for preventing and eradicating diseases, chiefly mass infections, and for increasing longevity. Ukrainian medical men have solved a number of important theoretical and clinical problems pertaining to public health and have improved public health practices. Advances have been made in oncology, heart surgery, space physiology and medicine, otorhinolaryngology (A. I. Kolomiichenko), and gynecology (A. Iu. Lur’e).

Agricultural sciences. Agricultural research is devoted to such problems as ensuring high yields of grain and industrial crops under unfavorable weather conditions, obtaining the maximum agricultural output with a minimum of expenditure per unit of land, and raising livestock productivity. Extensive research is being done on the genetics and selective breeding of agricultural plants, on seed growing, on land reclamation and improvement, on top-dressing, and on feeding agricultural animals. Much attention is being given to the all-round intensification of agricultural production through chemicalization. Ways of efficiently using microfer-tilizers have been proposed. Ukrainian scientists, notably V. Ia. Iur’ev and V. N. Remeslo, have developed new crop varieties. Several high-yield varieties of winter wheat are widely known: Odessa 3, Odessa 16, Michurinka, Mironovskaia 808, and Iubi-leinaia.

The development of a monospermous sugar beet variety has eliminated the labor-intensive process of thinning shoots. The physiological principles of raising the sugar content of sugar beets have been studied. Ukrainian scientists have had notable success in developing high-yield hybrids and varieties of corn. New high-yield varieties of groats, legumes, oil-bearing crops, essential-oil crops, and fodder crops are now being cultivated, as are wart-resistant varieties of potatoes and new high-yield lines and hybrids of vegetables and melons. Improved methods of growing vegetables in greenhouses and in open fields have been devised. A large number of hybrids of various fruits and berries have been created. Problems of growing and processing grapes are being studied. Breeders have done a great deal to improve existing livestock breeds and have produced new breeds. A fractional method has been developed for the artificial insemination of pigs. The research of A. A. Vasilenko and other agricultural specialists was used in designing new grain- and corn-harvesting combines, beet harvesters, cultivators, planters, and other agricultural machinery and mechanisms.

B. E. PATON

V. I. SHINKARUK and V. M. NICHIK

A. G. SHEVELEV

P. I. BAGRII

V. M. RUSANOVSKII

V. L. MIKITAS’

M. T. IATSENKO

REFERENCES

IU. A. STANISHEVSKII