yoga

(yō`gə) [Skt.,=union], general term for spiritual disciplines in HinduismHinduism
, Western term for the religious beliefs and practices of the vast majority of the people of India. One of the oldest living religions in the world, Hinduism is unique among the world religions in that it had no single founder but grew over a period of 4,000 years in
..... Click the link for more information. , BuddhismBuddhism
, religion and philosophy founded in India c.525 B.C. by Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha. There are over 300 million Buddhists worldwide. One of the great world religions, it is divided into two main schools: the Theravada or Hinayana in Sri Lanka and SE Asia, and
..... Click the link for more information. , and throughout S Asia that are directed toward attaining higher consciousness and liberation from ignorance, suffering, and rebirth. More specifically it is also the name of one of the six orthodox systems of Hindu philosophyHindu philosophy,
the philosophical speculations and systems of India that have their roots in Hinduism. Characteristics

Hindu philosophy began in the period of the Upanishads (900–500 B.C.
..... Click the link for more information. . Both Vedic and Buddhist literature discuss the doctrines of wandering ascetics in ancient India who practiced various kinds of austerities and meditation. The basic text of the Yoga philosophical school, the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali (2d cent. B.C.), is a systematization of one of these older traditions. Contemporary systems of yoga, such as those of Sri Aurobindo GhoseGhose, Aurobindo
, 1872–1950, Indian nationalist leader and mystic philosopher. Born in Bengal, he was sent to England and lived there for 14 years, completing his education at Cambridge. Returning to India in 1893, he plunged into the study of Indian languages and culture.
..... Click the link for more information. and Sri Chinmoy GhoseGhose, Chinmoy
, 1931–, Indian mystic and poet. Orphaned at the age of 12, he went to live at the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in S India, where he stayed for the next 20 years, practicing spiritual disciplines.
..... Click the link for more information. , stress that spiritual realization can be attained without the withdrawal from the world characteristic of the older traditions. Yoga is usually practiced under the guidance of a guru, or spiritual guide.

Patañjali divides the practice of yoga into eight stages. Yama, or restraint from vice, and niyama, or observance of purity and virtue, lay the moral foundation for practice and remove the disturbance of uncontrolled desires. Asana, or posture, and pranayama, or breath control, calm the physical body, while pratyahara, or withdrawal of the senses, detaches the mind from the external world. Internal control of consciousness is accomplished in the final three stages: dharana, or concentration, dhyana, or meditation, and samadhisamadhi
, a state of deep absorption in the object of meditation, and the goal of many kinds of yoga. In Buddhism the term refers to any state of one-pointed concentration.
..... Click the link for more information. . Through such practices yogis acquire miraculous powers, which must ultimately be renounced to attain the highest state. In samadhi the subject-object distinction and one's sense of an individual self disappear in a state usually described as one of supreme peace, bliss, and illumination. A common feature of different traditions of yoga is one-pointed concentration on a chosen object, whether a part of the body, the breath, a mantramantra
, in Hinduism and Buddhism, mystic words used in ritual and meditation. A mantra is believed to be the sound form of reality, having the power to bring into being the reality it represents. There are several types of mantras.
..... Click the link for more information. , a diagram, a deity, or an idea.

Hindu tradition in general recognizes three main kinds of yoga: jnana yoga, the path of realization and wisdom, bhaktibhakti
[Skt.,=devotion], theistic devotion in Hinduism. Bhakti cults seem to have existed from the earliest times, but they gained strength in the first millennium A.D. The first full statement of liberation and spiritual fulfillment through devotion to a personal god is found
..... Click the link for more information. yoga, the path of love and devotion to a personal God, and karma yoga, the path of selfless action. Other classifications exist. Patañjali's yoga is known as raja, or "royal," yoga. Hatha yoga, which stresses physical control and postures, is widely practiced in the West, where it is the dominant form of yoga and is often divorced from yoga's spiritual traditions. In the United States, yoga as a physical and quasispiritual exercise regime has been popular especially since the 1960s. Kundalini yoga, especially associated with TantraTantra
, in both Hinduism and Buddhism, esoteric tradition of ritual and yoga known for elaborate use of mantra, or symbolic speech, and mandala, or symbolic diagrams; the importance of female deities, or Shakti; cremation-ground practices such as meditation on corpses; and,
..... Click the link for more information. , is based on the physiology of the "subtle body," according to which seven major centers of psychic energy, called chakras, are located along the spinal column, with the kundalini, or "coiled" energy in latent form, located at the base of the spine. When the kundalini is activated by yogic methods, it ascends the spine through the main subtle artery of the sushumna, "opening" each chakra in turn. When the kundalini reaches the topmost chakra in the brain, samadhi is attained.

Bibliography

See S. Dasgupta, Yoga as Philosophy and Religion (1924, repr. 1973); I. K. Taimni, The Science of Yoga (1967); E. Wood, Yoga (1967); M. Eliade, Yoga (1969); P. Sinha, Yoga (1970); J. Varenne, Yoga and the Hindu Tradition (1976); R. Love, The Great Oom: The Improbable Birth of Yoga in America (2010); S. Syman, The Subtle Body: The Story of Yoga in America (2010); W. J. Broad, The Science of Yoga (2012).

Yoga

(Sanskrit, literally “joining,” “union,” “concentration,” or “effort”; the term is found in texts going back to oral traditions of the ninth and eighth centuries B.C.).

(1) In the broadest sense, a doctrine and method of controlling the human mind and psychophysiology with the aim of achieving higher psychic states. In this sense, yoga is an indispensable part of all the philosophical and religious systems of ancient and medieval India, and it is regarded by these systems as an extremely important means of realizing ethical and religious ideals, of which the highest is the complete liberation of man from the bonds of material existence. The basic ideas of yoga are the parallelism between the microcosm of man’s psychophysiology and the cosmic body of the universe, signifying that all man’s conscious strivings for self-reconstruction find their correspondence in the play of cosmic forces; the gradualness with which man masters the practice of self-change; the possibility of controlling biological bodies and inanimate objects by the mind; and the potential existence and possible development in any living being of a special yogic force, capable of fundamentally altering the natural order of things.

The basic concepts and actions of yoga are the subordination of body functions, or yama (control of respiration, temperature, digestion, the heart, circulation, and so on); settling the body into particular fixed postures, or asana; meditation upon a fixed (real or mental) object, bhavana; a state of trance characterized by a sharp change in mental and emotional condition, dhyana; and a state of psychic equilibrium and concentration, in which the mind acquires the characteristics of a homeostatic system (nonreversibility of psychic processes), known as samadhi. The ideas and concepts of yoga served as the basis for the development of a particular system of anatomical and physiological concepts about the circulation of life energy in the organism (kundalini-shakti ) and its concentration in the functionally important centers of the body (chakra). Yoga became especially highly developed by the Tantrist sects and schools of Hinduism and by Mahayana Buddhism.

(2)One of the six orthodox systems of Indian idealist philosophy, as summarily expounded in the Yoga-sutra of Patanjali (some time between the second century B.C. and the second century A.D.). Its basic idea is that the individual (purusha) can achieve spiritual liberation by stopping the flow of mental activity and bringing into equilibrium the basic tendencies of individual existence: sattva (serenity), rajas (activity), and tamas (inertia). In the yoga of Patanjali, eight stages of psychic concentration are distinguished, beginning with yama and ending with samadhi. Yogic exertions result in attaining the state of mahasa-madhi, that is, a merging of the contemplator, the object contemplated, and the process of contemplation. Mahasamadhi is considered to be a state of absolute freedom.

(3) Yoga understood as a form of consistent meditation (in the Vedanta), rather than as psychophysiological exercises (hatha-yoga). This form of yoga, raja-yoga, gives an intellectual interpretation to all yogic practices, explaining them as special reflex procedures for establishing the practicing individual’s identity with absolute reality.

In modern times, there have developed within yoga certain tendencies of classical Hinduist yoga, of which the most prominent representatives are Vivekananda, with his idea of integral yoga (the end of the 19th century), and Yogananda (the 1940’s and 1950’s). A specifically Buddhist yoga became especially developed in Tibet and Japan. The practice of yogic psychophysiological techniques to sustain the viability of the human organism under conditions of extreme scarcity of food and of anomalous rates of the functioning of the nervous, endocrine, and respiratory systems is being studied by contemporary clinical medicine, experimental psychology, and physiology.

REFERENCES

Ramacharaka. Hatha Yoga. St. Petersburg, 1912.
Vivekananda, S. Filosofiia Ioga. Sosnitsa, 1911.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indiiskaia filosofiia, vol. 2, pp. 296–330. Moscow, 1957. (Translated from English.)
Aurobindo. The Synthesis of Yoga.New Jersey, 1950.
Coster, G. Yoga and Western Psychology.Oxford, 1949.
Dasgupta, S. Yoga As Philosophy and Religion. London, 1924.
Eliade, M. Patanjali et le Yoga. Paris, 1962.

D. B. ZIL’BERMAN and A. M. PIATIGORSKII

The Buddhist exercise practice of yoga has a number of benefits, including helping one learn how to control his or her dreams.

Yoga

(dreams)

The two largest religions to originate in southern Asia (the geographical and cultural area that consists of contemporary India, Tibet, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) are Hinduism and Buddhism. Both of these complex religious traditions have been shaped by schools of philosophy that regard the world as we experience it as being in some sense “dreamlike,” illusory or unreal. In terms of this metaphor, it is the goal of the religious life to “wake up” from the illusion of this world.

The method by which the “awakening” is accomplished is often conceptualized as some form of yoga. In the West, the widespread popularity of hatha yoga has led the term yoga to be associated with an exotic set of physical exercises. However, in its original southern Asian setting, yoga encompasses a complex variety of practices, all of which aim to release the individual aspirant from the cycle of reincarnation.

Despite Hinduism’s traditional discourse about “awakening from the dream,” a form of yoga directed specifically at controlling the dream state does not seem to have developed until it emerged in Tibetan Buddhism (although it may have had a predecessor in Tantric Hinduism). According to tradition, the teacher Marpa introduced six yogas, including the teaching on dreams, in Tibet in the eleventh century.

The dream yoga of Tibet involves what has come to be called lucid dreaming in the West—a state in which the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming. The lucid dream state is not itself a form of meditation. Rather, the yoga of the dream state is practiced while one is in a lucid dream. During sleep, the yogi (one who practices yoga) exercises control over the landscape of his or her dream, learning that the dream world is transitory, malleable, and a function of consciousness. If the yogi has properly digested the teaching that this world and the dreamworld are both creations of the mind, the yogi’s dream experience helps him or her realize the illusory nature of this world. Learning to control the dream state also prepares the yogi to determine where his or her consciousness goes after death, a major goal of many schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

yoga

1. a Hindu system of philosophy aiming at the mystical union of the self with the Supreme Being in a state of complete awareness and tranquillity through certain physical and mental exercises 2. any method by which such awareness and tranquillity are attained, esp a course of related exercises and postures designed to promote physical and spiritual wellbeing
www.yoga.com

yoga

Yoga

Definition

The term yoga comes from a Sanskrit word which means yoke or union. Traditionally, yoga is a method joining the individual self with the Divine, Universal Spirit, or Cosmic Consciousness. Physical and mental exercises are designed to help achieve this goal, also called self-transcendence or enlightenment. On the physical level, yoga postures, called asanas, are designed to tone, strengthen, and align the body. These postures are performed to make the spine supple and healthy and to promote blood flow to all the organs, glands, and tissues, keeping all the bodily systems healthy. On the mental level, yoga uses breathing techniques (pranayama) and meditation (dyana) to quiet, clarify, and discipline the mind. However, experts are quick to point out that yoga is not a religion, but a way of living with health and peace of mind as its aims.

Purpose

Yoga has been used to alleviate problems associated with high blood pressure, high cholesterol, migraine headaches, asthma, shallow breathing, backaches, constipation, diabetes, menopause, multiple sclerosis, varicose veins, carpal tunnel syndrome and many chronic illnesses. It also has been studied and approved for its ability to promote relaxation and reduce stress.As of late 2002, yoga is increasingly recommended for dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome, and other disorders in premenopausal women, in Europe as well as in the United States.Yoga can also provide the same benefits as any well-designed exercise program, increasing general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles. Yoga has the added advantage of being a low-impact activity that uses only gravity as resistance, which makes it an excellent physical therapy routine; certain yoga postures can be safely used to strengthen and balance all parts of the body. A study published in late 2002 summarized recent findings about the benefits of yoga for the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems. The review noted that yoga is still viewed as a "trendy" form of exercise rather than one with documented medical benefits.Meditation has been much studied and approved for its benefits in reducing stress-related conditions. The landmark book, The Relaxation Response, by Harvard cardiologist Herbert Benson, showed that meditation and breathing techniques for relaxation could have the opposite effect of stress, reducing blood pressure and other indicators. Since then, much research has reiterated the benefits of meditation for stress reduction and general health. Currently, the American Medical Association recommends meditation techniques as a first step before medication for borderline hypertension cases. Some 2002 studies indicate that yogic meditation by itself is effective in lowering serum cholesterol as well as blood pressure.Modern psychological studies have shown that even slight facial expressions can cause changes in the involuntary nervous system; yoga utilizes the mind/body connection. That is, yoga practice contains the central ideas that physical posture and alignment can influence a person's mood and self-esteem, and also that the mind can be used to shape and heal the body. Yoga practitioners claim that the strengthening of mind/body awareness can bring eventual improvements in all facets of a person's life.

Description

Origins

Yoga originated in ancient India and is one of the longest surviving philosophical systems in the world. Some scholars have estimated that yoga is as old as 5,000 years; artifacts detailing yoga postures have been found in India from over 3000 B.C. Yoga masters (yogis) claim that it is a highly developed science of healthy living that has been tested and perfected for all these years. Yoga was first brought to America in the late 1800s when Swami Vivekananda, an Indian teacher and yogi, presented a lecture on meditation in Chicago. Yoga slowly began gaining followers, and flourished during the 1960s when there was a surge of interest in Eastern philosophy. There has since been a vast exchange of yoga knowledge in America, with many students going to India to study and many Indian experts coming here to teach, resulting in the establishment of a wide variety schools. Today, yoga is thriving, and it has become easy to find teachers and practitioners throughout America. A recent Roper poll, commissioned by Yoga Journal, found that 11 million Americans do yoga at least occasionally and 6 million perform it regularly. Yoga stretches are used by physical therapists and professional sports teams, and the benefits of yoga are being touted by movie stars and Fortune 500 executives. Many prestigious schools of medicine have studied and introduced yoga techniques as proven therapies for illness and stress. Some medical schools, like UCLA, even offer yoga classes as part of their physician training program.Classical yoga is separated into eight limbs, each a part of the complete system for mental, physical and spiritual well-being. Four of the limbs deal with mental and physical exercises designed to bring the

Yoga Positions
Name	Description
Abdominal massage	Kneel with arms folded. Bend torso toward ground and lower forehead to the floor. Slowlly raise up, switch arms, and repeat.
Boat	Lying on stomach, raise head, torso, arms, and legs off the ground and stretch. Arms should be outstretched and pointing towards feet.
Bow	Lying on stomach, hold ankles from behind and slowly raise head, torso, and thighs off floor.
Bridge	Lying on back with knees bent and feet flat on floor, raise pelvis off floor and arch back. Arms should be stretched out on floor with hands grasped.
C	On hands and knees, move head and buttocks as far left as possible. Inhale as you return center and repeat on the right side.
Camel	While kneeling, arch back and bend head back toward feet. Hold heels with hands and exhale while in movement.
Cat	On hands and knees, arch back and exhale while in movement, rounding shoulders and back.
Child	Kneeling with arms to the side, roll torso to floor and rest forehead on the ground.
Cobra	Stretched out on floor with stomach down, place elbows parallel to shoulders and raise torso up. Arms should straighten with hands flat on floor.
Corpse	Lie on back with feet and arms outstretched. Breathe deeply.
Dog	On hands and knees, dip back and lift head and buttocks up. Exhale.
Downward Dog	On hands and knees form and inverted V by pushing pelvis up and pressing hands and heels to floor. Exhale while in movement.
Half Cobra	Stretched out on floor with stomach down, place elbows parallel to shoulders and raise torso up. Keep arms bent and only raise torso off the ground as far as the navel.
Half Locust	Lying on stomach with hands beneath the body, raise legs one at a time while tensing buttocks. Repeat with other leg.
Half Lotus	Sit with legs crossed (only one leg should be over the other) and knees touching the floor.
Half-Moon	Standing with feet together, hold hands above the head with arms outstretched. Exhale and stretch to the left. Inhale and return to center. Repeat on other side.
Hand and thumb squeeze	Make a fist around thumb and squeeze. Release slowly and repeat on other hand.
Head to knee	Sitting with right leg outstretched and the left leg bend toward the body with the left foot touching the right leg, stretch head to right knee. Repeat on other side.
Hero	On hands and knees, cross left knee in front of right knee while sitting back between the heels. Hold heels with hands.
Knee down twist	Lying on back with arms outstretched, place right foot on left knee and swivel right knee to the left side of floor. While in movement, turn head to left side. Repeat on opposite side.
Locust	Lying on stomach with hands under the body, squeeze buttocks and lift legs up and outward. Keep legs straight.
Mountain	Standing with feet together, inhale while raising arms straight above the head and clasp hands together. Exhale while lowering arms.
Pigeon	Kneeling, slide the left leg straight out from behind and inhale, stretching torso up. Release and repeat on other side.
Plow	Lying on back, inhale and raise legs over head while keeping hands flat on floor for support.

Yoga Positions (continued)
Name	Description
Posterior stretch	Sitting with legs outstretched and feet together, stretch head to toes.
Rag Doll	While standing, exhale and bend over toward toes, cupping elbows with hands. Breathe deeply.
Seated angle	Sitting with legs outstretched in a V shape, stretch arms to toes and head to floor.
Shoulder crunch	With back straight, slowly lift shoulder to ear and lower. Repeat on other side.
Shoulder stand	Lying on back, lift legs up and support back with hands. Slowly angle legs over head and then extend upward.
Sphinx	Lying on stomach with elbows parallel to shoulders and palms on the ground, push torso up and look upward.
Spider	Press fingertips together and move palms in and out.
Spinal twist	Sitting with right foot crossed over left leg and right leg held with left arm. Twist while supporting body with right hand on the floor. Repeat on other side.
Standing angle	Inhale and step into V position, stretching arms out and then down toward floor.
Standing yoga mudra	Standing with arms at sides, inhale and raise arms in front. Exhale and swing arms to back.
Tree	While standing, place one foot on the opposite thigh and outstretch arms above the head. Hold hands above with index fingers straight and the remaining fingers clasped.
Triangle	With arms parallel to floor and legs outstretched, turn one foot out and stretch to that side, keeping arms straight. Repeat on other side.
Upward Dog	Lying on stomach with hands down near the chest, lift torso off the floor while raising on toes. Hands should raise, but remain palms down. Arch back slightly.
Warrior I	Raise arms over head with palms together and lunge forward with one foot, keeping thigh parallel to the ground.
Warrior II	With arms straight out and parallel to the ground and legs in V, turn one foot out and lunge to the side, keeping hips straight.
Yoga Mudra	Sitting on heels, round torso to the ground with forehead to the floor while stretching arms overhead. Inhale while in movement and exhale while lowering arms.

mind in tune with the body. The other four deal with different stages of meditation. There are six major types of yoga, all with the same goals of health and harmony but with varying techniques: hatha, raja, karma, bhakti, jnana, and tantra yoga. Hatha yoga is the most commonly practiced branch of yoga in America, and it is a highly developed system of nearly 200 physical postures, movements and breathing techniques designed to tune the body to its optimal health. The yoga philosophy believes the breath to be the most important facet of health, as the breath is the largest source of prana, or life force, and hatha yoga utilizes pranayama, which literally means the science or control of breathing. Hatha yoga was originally developed as a system to make the body strong and healthy enough to enable mental awareness and spiritual enlightenment.

Demonstrations of the tree, triangle, cobra, and lotus poses. The tree and triangle are good for balance and coordination. Cobra stretches the pelvic and strengthens the back. Lotus is a meditative pose. (Illustration by Electronic Illustrators Group.)

Yoga is a system that benefits the body, mind, and spirit by teaching self-control through a series of postures and exercises as well as through breathing, relaxation, and meditation techniques. (Illustration by Electronic Illustrators Group.)There are several different schools of hatha yoga in America; the two most prevalent ones are Iyengar and ashtanga yoga. Iyengar yoga was founded by B.K.S. Iyengar, who is widely considered as one of the great living innovators of yoga. Iyengar yoga puts strict emphasis on form and alignment, and uses traditional hatha yoga techniques in new manners and sequences. Iyengar yoga can be good for physical therapy because it allows the use of props like straps and blocks to make it easier for some people to get into the yoga postures. Ashtanga yoga can be a more vigorous routine, using a flowing and dance-like sequence of hatha postures to generate body heat, which purifies the body through sweating and deep breathing.The other types of yoga show some of the remaining ideas which permeate yoga. Raja yoga strives to bring about mental clarity and discipline through meditation, simplicity, and non-attachment to worldly things and desires. Karma yoga emphasizes charity, service to others, non-aggression and non-harming as means to awareness and peace. Bhakti yoga is the path of devotion and love of God, or Universal Spirit. Jnana yoga is the practice and development of knowledge and wisdom. Finally, tantra yoga is the path of self-awareness through religious rituals, including awareness of sexuality as sacred and vital.A typical hatha yoga routine consists of a sequence of physical poses, or asanas, and the sequence is designed to work all parts of the body, with particular emphasis on making the spine supple and healthy and increasing circulation. Hatha yoga asanas utilize three basic movements: forward bends, backward bends, and twisting motions. Each asana is named for a common thing it resembles, like the sun salutation, cobra, locust, plough, bow, eagle, tree, and the head to knee pose, to name a few. Each pose has steps for entering and exiting it, and each posture requires proper form and alignment. A pose is held for some time, depending on its level of difficulty and one's strength and stamina, and the practitioner is also usually aware of when to inhale and exhale at certain points in each posture, as breathing properly is another fundamental aspect of yoga. Breathing should be deep and through the nose. Mental concentration in each position is also very important, which improves awareness, poise and posture. During a yoga routine there is often a position in which to perform meditation, if deep relaxation is one of the goals of the sequence.Yoga routines can take anywhere from 20 minutes to two or more hours, with one hour being a good time investment to perform a sequence of postures and a meditation. Some yoga routines, depending on the teacher and school, can be as strenuous as the most difficult workout, and some routines merely stretch and align the body while the breath and heart rate are kept slow and steady. Yoga achieves its best results when it is practiced as a daily discipline, and yoga can be a life-long exercise routine, offering deeper and more challenging positions as a practitioner becomes more adept. The basic positions can increase a person's strength, flexibility and sense of well-being almost immediately, but it can take years to perfect and deepen them, which is an appealing and stimulating aspect of yoga for many.Yoga is usually best learned from a yoga teacher or physical therapist, but yoga is simple enough that one can learn the basics from good books on the subject, which are plentiful. Yoga classes are generally inexpensive, averaging around 10 dollars per class, and students can learn basic postures in just a few classes. Many YMCAs, colleges, and community health organizations offer beginning yoga classes as well, often for nominal fees. If yoga is part of a physical therapy program, its cost can be reimbursed by insurance.

Preparations

Yoga can be performed by those of any age and condition, although not all poses should be attempted by everyone. Yoga is also a very accessible form of exercise; all that is needed is a flat floor surface large enough to stretch out on, a mat or towel, and enough overhead space to fully raise the arms. It is a good activity for those who can't go to gyms, who don't like other forms of exercise, or have very busy schedules. Yoga should be done on an empty stomach, and teachers recommend waiting three or more hours after meals. Loose and comfortable clothing should be worn.

Precautions

People with injuries, medical conditions, or spinal problems should consult a doctor before beginning yoga. Those with medical conditions should find a yoga teacher who is familiar with their type of problem and who is willing to give them individual attention. Pregnant women can benefit from yoga, but should always be guided by an experienced teacher. Certain yoga positions should not be performed with a fever, or during menstruation.Beginners should exercise care and concentration when performing yoga postures, and not try to stretch too much too quickly, as injury could result. Some advanced yoga postures, like the headstand and full lotus position, can be difficult and require strength, flexibility, and gradual preparation, so beginners should get the help of a teacher before attempting them.Yoga is not a competive sport; it does not matter how a person does in comparison with others, but how aware and disciplined one becomes with one's own body and limitations. Proper form and alignment should always be maintained during a stretch or posture, and the stretch or posture should be stopped when there is pain, dizziness, or fatigue. The mental component of yoga is just as important as the physical postures. Concentration and awareness of breath should not be neglected. Yoga should be done with an open, gentle, and non-critical mind; when one stretches into a yoga position, it can be thought of accepting and working on one's limits. Impatience, self-criticism and comparing oneself to others will not help in this process of self-knowledge. While performing the yoga of breathing (pranayama) and meditation (dyana), it is best to have an experienced teacher, as these powerful techniques can cause dizziness and discomfort when done improperly.

Side effects

Some people have reported injuries by performing yoga postures without proper form or concentration, or by attempting difficult positions without working up to them gradually or having appropriate supervision. Beginners sometimes report muscle soreness and fatigue after performing yoga, but these side effects diminish with practice.

Research and general acceptance

Although yoga originated in a culture very different from that of modern America, it has been accepted and its practice has spread relatively quickly. Many yogis are amazed at how rapidly yoga's popularity has spread in the United States and Canada, considering the legend that it was passed down secretly by handfuls of adherents for many centuries.There can still be found some resistance to yoga, for active and busy Americans sometimes find it hard to believe that an exercise program that requires them to slow down, concentrate, and breathe deeply can be more effective than lifting weights or running. However, ongoing research in top medical schools is showing yoga's effectiveness for overall health and for specific problems, making it an increasingly acceptable health practice.The growing acceptability of yoga as an alternative therapy for certain disorders or conditions is reflected in the fact that the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) is conducting a series of clinical trials of ypga. As of the summer of 2004, NCCAM has five clinical trials in progress, evaluating yoga as a treatment for chronic low back pain; insomnia; depression in patients diagnosed with HIV infection; and shortness of breath in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The fifth clinical trial is an evaluation of yoga in improving attention span in aging and multiple sclerosis.

Resources

Books

Ansari, Mark, and Liz Lark. Yoga for Beginners. New York: Harper, 1999.Pelletier, Kenneth R., MD. The Best Alternative Medicine, Chapter 10, "Ayurvedic Medicine and Yoga: From Buddha to the Millennium." New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.

Periodicals

Bielory, L., J. Russin, and G. B. Zuckerman. "Clinical Efficacy, Mechanisms of Action, and Adverse Effects of Complementary and Alternative Medicine Therapies for Asthma." Allergy and Asthma Proceedings 25 (September-October 2004): 283-291.Engebretson, J. "Culture and Complementary Therapies" Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery 8 (November 2002): 177-184.Gerritsen, A. A., M. C. de Krom, M. A. Struijs, et al. "Conservative Treatment Options for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials." Journal of Neurology 249 (March 2002): 272-280.Kronenberg, F., and A. Fugh-Berman. "Complementary and Alternative Medicine for Menopausal Symptoms: A Review of Randomized, Controlled Trials." Annals of Internal Medicine 137 (November 19, 2002): 805-813.Lee, S. W., C. A. Mancuso, and M. E. Charlson. "Prospective Study of New Participants in a Community-Based Mind-Body Training Program." Journal of General Internal Medicine 19 (July 2004): 760-765.Manocha, R., G. B. Marks, P. Kenchington, et al. "Sahaja Yoga in the Management of Moderate to Severe Asthma: A Randomized Controlled Trial." Thorax 57 (February 2002): 110-115.Raub, J. A. "Psychophysiologic Effects of Hatha Yoga on Musculoskeletal and Cardiopulmonary Function: A Literature Review." Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 8 (December 2002): 797-812.Tonini, G. "Dysmenorrhea, Endometriosis and Premenstrual Syndrome" [in Italian] Minerva Pediatrica 54 (December 2002): 525-538.Vyas, R., and N. Dikshit. "Effect of Meditation on Respiratory System, Cardiovascular System and Lipid Profile." Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 46 (October 2002): 487-491.Yoga International Magazine. R.R. 1 Box 407, Honesdale, PA 18431. http://www.yimag.com.Yoga Journal. P.O. Box 469088, Escondido, CA 92046. http://www.yogajournal.com.

Organizations

American Yoga Association. http://www.americanyogaassociation.org.International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT). 4150 Tivoli Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90066.National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) Clearinghouse. P. O. Box 7923. Gaitherburg, MD 20898. (888) 644-6226. Fax: (866) 464-3616. http://nccam.nih.gov.Yoga Research and Education Center (YREC). 2400A County Center Drive, Santa Rosa, CA 95403. (707) 566-0000. http://www.yrec.org.

Other

NCCAM Yoga Clinical Trials. http://nccam.nih.gov/clinicaltrials/yoga.htm.

A widely practised holistic system of health care and maintenance, which is said to join the mind, body, and breath as one unit; if the mind is disturbed, the breath and body are affected; as the body’s activity increases, the mind is altered and the rate and depth of breath changes; yoga attempts to join the 3 units through proper breathing and by assuming asanas—yogic poses; regular practice of yoga may decrease stress, heart rate, blood pressure and possibly retard ageing

yoga

Hatha yoga Ayurvedic medicine A holistic system of health care and maintenance, widely practiced throughout the world; the purpose of yoga is to join the mind, body, and breath as one unit; if the mind is disturbed, the breath and body are affected; as the body's activity increases, the mind is altered and the rate and depth of breath changes; yoga attempts to join the 3 units through proper breathing and by assuming asanas–yogic poses; regular practice of yoga may ↓ stress, heart rate, BP and possibly retard aging

yoga

One of the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy. In Hatha Yoga the emphasis is on physical preparation for spiritual development. It incorporates a series of poses, known as asanas, by which, it is claimed, one may retain youthful flexibility and control of the body and achieve relaxation and peace of mind.

Patient discussion about yoga

Q. Yoga for COPD? I was diagnosed with COPD two years ago, and so far I manage to keep on with my life, although I stopped my regular exercise. A friend of mine that also has COPD told me about yoga exercises for COPD patients- Does anyone here knows something about it?A. Yoga can teach you how to breath properly, and is also a very good exercise. It's also very relaxing which is also good for you lung, and you can enjoy it. Just give it a try, but ask your physician first.

Q. What is the best type of yoga for a newbie? A. Here is a good guide on the different types of yoga:
http://yoga.about.com/od/typesofyoga/a/yogatypes.htm
Hope this helps.

Q. yoga fo bipolar? anyone heard of it? I was told yoga is very good for general balance in all sections of life. Do you guys think it can also help with manic-depression?? A. hi...This is Prashantmurti...I m a Yoga Teacher by profession...
Yoga has a direct impact on the Emotional level...And if you practising right and appropriate Yogic technique which is suitable for yourself and under proper guidance, certaily Yoga will help to come out from any type of depression. (prashantmurti@yahoo.com)
Happy New Year

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noun Hindu discipline aimed at training the consciousness for a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility that is achieved through the three paths of actions and knowledge and devotion

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noun a system of exercises practiced as part of the Hindu discipline to promote control of the body and mind

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