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单词 child abuse
释义

child abuse


child abuse

n (Social Welfare) physical, sexual, or emotional ill-treatment or neglect of a child, esp by those responsible for its welfare. See also nonaccidental injury

child′ abuse`


n. beating, neglect, or other mistreatment of a child by a parent or guardian. [1970–75]
Thesaurus
Noun1.child abuse - the physical or emotional or sexual mistreatment of childrenchild abuse - the physical or emotional or sexual mistreatment of childrenabuse, ill-treatment, ill-usage, maltreatment - cruel or inhumane treatment; "the child showed signs of physical abuse"
Translations
虐待儿童

child abuse

→ 虐待儿童zhCN

child abuse


child abuse,

physical, sexual, or emotional maltreatment or neglect of children by parents, guardians, or others responsible for a child's welfare. Physical abuse is characterized by physical injury, usually inflicted as a result of a beating or inappropriately harsh discipline. Sexual abuse includes molestation, incest, rape, prostitution, or use of a child for pornographic purposes. Neglect can be physical in nature (abandonment, failure to seek needed health care), educational (failure to see that a child is attending school), or emotional (abuse of a spouse or another child in the child's presence, allowing a child to witness adult substance abuse). Inappropriate punishment, verbal abuse, and scapegoating are also forms of emotional or psychological child abuse. Some authorities consider parental actions abusive if they have negative future consequences, e.g., exposure of a child to violence or harmful substances, extending in some views to the passive inhalation of cigarette smoke (see smokingsmoking,
inhalation and exhalation of the fumes of burning tobacco in cigars and cigarettes and pipes. Some persons draw the smoke into their lungs; others do not. Smoking was probably first practiced by the indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere.
..... Click the link for more information. ).

In practice, there are borderline areas where what constitutes child abuse is not clear. For example, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled (1944) that parents do not have an absolute right to deny life-saving medical treatment to their children, but devout members of the Church of Christ, Scientist, and other churches believe in the healing power of prayer and do not always seek medical help. Most U.S. states, however, permit parents to use religious beliefs as a defense against prosecution for the withholding of medical treatment from their sick children, even in cases where the lack of treatment results in a child's death.

Causes and Effects

There are many interacting causes of child abuse and neglect. Characteristics or circumstances of the abuser, the child, and the family may all contribute. In many cases the abuser was abused as a child. Substance abuse (see drug addiction and drug abusedrug addiction and drug abuse,
chronic or habitual use of any chemical substance to alter states of body or mind for other than medically warranted purposes. Traditional definitions of addiction, with their criteria of physical dependence and withdrawal (and often an underlying
..... Click the link for more information. ) has been identified as a key factor in a growing number of cases. In some cases abusers do not have the education and skills needed to raise a child, thus increasing the likelihood of abuse, and providing inadequate parental role models for future generations. Children who are ill, disabled, or otherwise perceived as different are more likely to be the targets of abuse. In the family, marital discord, domestic violence, unemployment and poverty, and social isolation are all factors that can precipitate abuse.

Patterns of abusive behavior may result in the physical or mental impairment of the child or even death. Small children are especially vulnerable to physical injury such as whiplash or shaken infant syndrome resulting from battery. Abused children are more likely to experience generalized anxiety, depression, truancy, shame and guilt, or suicidal and homicidal thoughts or to engage in criminal activity, promiscuity, and substance abuse.

Intervention in Child Abuse Cases

In the United States, New York became the first state to institute child protection laws (1875) that made abuse against children a crime, and other states soon followed with similar laws. In 1974 the U.S. Congress passed the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, which encouraged remaining states to pass child protection laws and created the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. In addition, all states have their own reporting laws, juvenile and family court laws, and criminal laws.

Cases of child abuse are handled by an multidisciplinary team including medical personnel, law enforcement officers, the schools, social workers, and the courts. School personnel may be the first to notice and report signs of abuse. Child-abuse cases are often coordinated by a community's child protective services unit, which sends case workers to the home for evaluation and offers services to the child and family. Medical professionals may report cases, provide treatment for injured children, provide testimony in court, or help to educate parents. Law enforcement personnel may be involved when cases are reported or when there is a question of a criminal action. The courts provide emergency protective orders or decide whether the child should be removed from the home. Child abuse may be punished by incarceration of the perpetrator or by the denial of custody rights to abusive parents or guardians.

Incidence

Despite efforts to reduce child abuse in America, more than a million children are physically abused each year; about 2,000 die. Although the magnitude of sexual abuse of children in the United States is unknown, it is considered to be an escalating problem, and one that can result in serious psychological damage among victims. There are no reliable statistics available for emotional abuse and neglect, but these types of child abuse are as potentially damaging to their victims as are various forms of physical abuse. Child abuse extends across racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic lines, but there are consistently more reports concerning children born into poverty. The reporting of child abuse is complicated by the private nature of the crime, the fearfulness of the child, and strong motivation for denial in the abuser.

Bibliography

See J. Goldstein, A. Freud, A. J. Solnit, and S. Goldstein, In the Best Interests of the Child (1986); J. Garbarino, E. Guttmann, and J. W. Seeley, The Psychologically Battered Child (1987); D. E. H. Russell, The Secret Trauma: Incest in the Lives of Girls and Women (1986); R. E. Helfer and R. S. Kempe, The Battered Child (4th ed. 1987); D. J. Besharov, Recognizing Child Abuse: A Guide for the Concerned (1990); publications of the National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect.

child abuse

the inflicting of injury or psychological damage on a minor through assault, sexual exploitation or emotional harm. The awareness of child abuse internationally has developed very unevenly. Even in societies where concern is widespread, services for the investigation and amelioration of abuse are often under-resourced.

Research has been undertaken principally by psychologists and those associated with the SOCIAL WORK services to children and their families. Attempts at explanation have focused upon indices of deprivation, the faulty SOCIALIZATION of carers, and, more recently, and especially in relation to sexual abuse, male power.

child abuse


Child abuse

 

Definition


Child abuse, sometimes called child maltreatment, describes four types of child mistreatment: physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse, and neglect. In many cases, children are the victims of more than one type of abuse. The abusers can be parents or other family members, caregivers such as teachers or babysitters, acquaintances (including other children), and (in very rare instances) strangers.

Description

Prevalence of abuse


Child abuse was once viewed as a minor social problem affecting only a handful of American children. However, in the late twentieth century, issues of child welfare came under closer scrutiny by the media, law enforcement, and the helping professions. This increase in public and professional awareness led to a sharp rise in the number of reported cases of child abuse. Today child abuse is recognized as a problem that occurs among households or all racial, ethnic, and income levels, although the incidence of reported cases is higher in low-income households where adult caregivers experience greater financial stress and social difficulties, have less education and less understanding of child development, and may have less access to social services. In addition, children of parents who are substance abusers are more likely to experience abuse than children living in households where there is no substance abuse. Many child abusers were themselves abused as children.
According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services Administration for Children and Families, in 2006 in the United States Child Protective Services (CPS) investigated almost reports of child abuse of almost 3.6 million children. Of these, approximately 905,000 children, or about 12 children per 1,000 population, were documented victims of child maltreatment. Nearly three-quarters of these children were victims of repeated maltreatment. In addition, 1,530 child fatalities resulted from child abuse. Of these, about three-quarters of the children were under age four, with the largest number of deaths occurring in infants under one year old. Nearly 83% of abused children were abused by a parent or a parent acting with another individual. Child abuse almost always occurs in private, and because abuse often is hidden from view and its victims may be too young or too frightened to speak out, experts suggest that its true prevalence is probably greater than the official data indicate.

Physical abuse


Physical abuse is the nonaccidental infliction of physical injury to a child. The abuser is usually a family member or other caregiver, and is more likely to be male The injuries can be inflicted by punching, kicking, biting, burning, beating, or use of a weapon such as a baseball bat or knife. Physical abuse can result in bruises, burns, poisoning, broken bones, and internal hemorrhages. A rare form of physical abuse is Munchausen syndrome by proxy, in which a caregiver (most often the mother) seeks attention by intentionally making the child sick or appear to be sick.

Sexual abuse


Sexual abuse is any activity with a child occurring before the age of legal consent that is for the sexual gratification of an adult or a significantly older or dominant child. Sexual behaviors can include touching breasts, genitals, and buttocks while the victim is either dressed or undressed. Sexual abuse behavior also includes exhibitionism, cunnilingus, fellatio, or penetration of the vagina or anus with sexual organs or objects. Pornographic photography also is a form of sexual abuse of children. The U.S. Department of Justice estimates that one in six victims of a sexual assault are under age 12. Despite publicity surrounding cases where a child is assaulted by a stranger, almost all sexual abuse against children is perpetrated by a family member (e.g. father, stepfather, aunt, uncle, sibling, cousin) or family intimate (e.g., live-in lover or friend of the parent).
Rape is the most violent form of sexual abuse. Rape is the perpetration of an act of sexual intercourse when:
  • will is overcome by force or fear (from threats, use of weapons, or use of drugs).

  • mental impairment renders the victim incapable of rational judgment.

  • if the victim is below the legal age established for consent.

According the U.S. Department of Justice, 54% of all rapes are of women under age 18.

Child Abuse: Signs And Symptoms

Although these signs do not necessarily indicate that a child has been abused, they may help adults recognize that something is wrong. The possibility of abuse should be investigated if a child shows a number of these symptoms, or any of them to a marked degree:
Sexual Abuse
  • Being overly affectionate or knowledgeable in a sexual way inappropriate to the child's age
  • Medical problems such as chronic itching, pain in the genitals, venereal diseases
  • Other extreme reactions, such as depression, self-mutilation, suicide attempts, running away, overdoses, anorexia
  • Personality changes such as becoming insecure or clingy
  • Regressing to younger behavior patterns such as thumb sucking or bringing out discarded cuddly toys
  • Sudden loss of appetite or compulsive eating
  • Being isolated or becoming withdrawn
  • Inability to concentrate
  • Lack of trust or fear someone they know well, such as not wanting to be alone with a babysitter or specific family member
  • Starting to wet bed again, day or night/nightmares
  • Become worried about clothing being removed
  • Suddenly starting to draw sexually explicit pictures
  • Trying to be "ultra-good" or perfect; overreacting to criticism
Physical Abuse
  • Unexplained recurrent injuries or burns
  • Improbable excuses or refusal to explain injuries
  • Wearing clothes to cover injuries, even in hot weather
  • Refusal to undress for gym
  • Bald patches
  • Chronic running away
  • Fear of medical help or examination
  • Self-destructive tendencies
  • Aggression towards others
  • Fear of physical contact; shrinking back if touched
  • Admitting that they are punished, but the punishment is excessive (such as a child being beaten every night to make him/her study)
  • Fear of suspected abuser being contacted
Psychological Abuse
  • Physical, mental, and psychological developmental lags
  • Sudden speech disorders
  • Continual self-depreciation (e.g.,I'm stupid, ugly, worthless)
  • Overreaction to mistakes
  • Extreme fear of any new situation
  • Inappropriate response to pain (e.g., I deserve this)
  • Neurotic behavior (e.g., rocking, hair twisting, self-mutilation)
  • Extremes of passivity or aggression
Neglect
  • Constant hunger
  • Poor personal hygiene
  • No social relationships
  • Constant tiredness
  • Poor state of clothing
  • Compulsive scavenging
  • Emaciation
  • Untreated medical problems
  • Destructive tendencies
A child may be subjected to a combination of different kinds of abuse. It is also possible that a child may show no outward signs and hide what is happening from everyone.

Psychological abuse


Psychological abuse encompasses rejection, ignoring, criticizing, belittling, humiliating, threatening the child with violence, or otherwise terrorizing the child, all of which have the effect of eroding the child's self-esteem and sense of security. It also can include isolating the child from friends or other family members or destroying the child's property. Psychological abuse often accompanies other types of abuse. It is difficult to prove and is rarely reported.

Neglect


Neglect is the failure to satisfy a child's basic needs. It can assume many forms. Physical neglect is the failure (beyond the constraints imposed by poverty) to provide adequate food, clothing, shelter, or supervision. Psychological neglect is the failure to satisfy a child's normal psychological needs and/or behavior that damages a child's normal psychological development (e.g., permitting drug abuse in the home, having the child witness domestic violence). Failing to see that a child receives proper schooling and medical care also are considered neglect. Most of the cases reported to CPS involve neglect.

Causes and symptoms

Physical abuse


The usual physical abuse scenario involves a parent who loses control and lashes out at a child. The trigger may be normal child behavior such as crying or dirtying a diaper. Often caregivers who are abusers have little understanding of child development and have unrealistically high expectations of what young children are capable of doing for themselves and poor anger management skills. The child abuser is often a regular user of drugs or alcohol.
Unexplained or suspicious bruises or burns on the skin are typical signs of physical abuse. Skull and other bone fractures are often seen in young abused children. Head injuries are the leading cause of death in abused children. Children less than one year old are particularly vulnerable to brain injury from shaking. This is called battered child syndrome or shaken baby syndrome. Physical abuse also causes a wide variety of negative behavioral changes in children.

Sexual abuse


Factors that may contribute to the sexual abuse of children include alcohol or drug abuse, poor impulse control, and a belief that the sexual behaviors are acceptable and not harmful to the child. The chances of abuse are higher if the child is developmentally handicapped or vulnerable in some other way.
Genital or anal injuries or abnormalities, including the presence of sexually transmitted diseases, can be signs of sexual abuse, but often there is no physical evidence that the child has been sexually abused. Anxiety, poor academic performance, and suicidal conduct are some of the behavioral signs of sexual abuse, but these behaviors also are found in children experiencing other kinds of stress. Excessive masturbation and unusually sexually precocious behaviors are often indicative of sexual abuse.

Psychological abuse


Psychological abuse can happen in many settings including at home, at school, and on sports teams. Some of the possible symptoms include loss of self-esteem, sleep disturbances, headaches or stomach aches, school avoidance, and anxiety. Psychological abuse is difficult to pinpoint, as the child may believe that the behavior is normal and something all children experience.

Neglect


Neglect may occur because the parent/guardian experiences strong negative feelings toward the child or because the parent/guardian lacks the ability or strength to adequately provide for the child's needs because he or she is handicapped by drug abuse, alcoholism, mental retardation, clinical depression, schizophrenia, or some other mental health problem.
Neglected children often do not receive adequate nourishment or psychological and mental stimulation. As a result, their physical, social, psychological, and mental development is hindered. They may, for instance, be underweight, develop language skills less quickly than other children, and seem psychologically needy.

Diagnosis


Doctors and many other professionals who work with children are required by law to report suspected abuse to their state's CPS agency. Abuse investigations often are a group effort involving medical personnel, social workers, police officers, and others. Some hospitals and communities maintain child protection teams that respond to cases of possible abuse. Careful questioning of the parents is crucial, as is interviewing the child (if he or she is capable of being interviewed). Trained investigators must ensure, however, that their questioning does not further traumatize the child an also that their style of questioning does not prompt the child to give the answers the child thinks the questioner wants rather than accurate answers. A physical examination for signs of abuse or neglect is necessary and may include x rays, blood tests, and other procedures.

Treatment


Notification of the appropriate authorities, treatment of the child's injuries, and protecting the child from further harm are the immediate priorities in abuse cases. If the child does not require hospital treatment, protection often involves placing him or her with relatives or in a group home or foster care. Once the immediate concerns are dealt with, it becomes essential to determine how the child's long-term medical, psychological, educational, and other needs can best be met. This process involves evaluating not only the child's needs but also the needs of the family's (e.g., drug abuse counseling, parental skills training, anger management training). The authorities also must determine whether other children living in the same household also have been abused. On investigation, signs of physical abuse are discovered in about 20% of other children living in the abused child's household.

Prognosis


Child abuse can have lifelong consequences. Research shows that abused children and adolescents are more likely to do poorly in school, experience depression, extreme anger, antisocial personality traits and other psychiatric problems. They also are more likely to become promiscuous, abuse drugs and alcohol, run away, and attempt suicide. As adults they often have trouble establishing intimate relationships. Long-term therapy by a professional trained in working with abused children and adults offers the best chance of overcoming childhood abuse.

Prevention


Government efforts to prevent abuse include home-visitor programs aimed at high-risk families and school-based efforts to teach children how to respond to attempted sexual abuse. Psychological abuse prevention has been promoted through the media.
When children reach age three, parents should begin teaching them about "bad touches" and about confiding in a suitable adult if they are touched or treated in a way that makes them uneasy. Parents also need to exercise caution in hiring babysitters and other caregivers. Anyone who suspects abuse should report those suspicions to the police or his or her local CPS agency. Prevent Child Abuse America (listed in references) is an excellent source of information on the many support groups and other organizations that help abused and at-risk children and their families. One of these organizations, Parents Anonymous, sponsors local self-help groups throughout the United States, Canada, and Europe.

For Your Information

Resources


American Help Hotlines

  • Childhelp National Child Abuse Hotline 1-800-4-A-CHILD. TDD for the Deaf 1-800-2-A-Child. Help for children who are being abused or adults who are concerned that a child they know is being abused or neglected.

  • Rape, Abuse and Incest National Network (RAINN) Online hotline http://www.rainn.org/get-help/national-sexual-assault-online-hotline or telephone: 1-800-656-HOPE. Online counseling and referral to local rape crisis centers using anonymous instant messaging or telephone counseling and referrals to local crisis center.

Websites

  • "Child Abuse." MedlinePlus, National Institutes of Health. December 4, 2008 [cited December 17, 2008]. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/childabuse.html.

  • "Child Welfare Information Gateway." United States Department of Health and Human Services. December 1, 2008 [cited December 17, 2008]. http://www.childwelfare.gov.

Organizations

  • Prevent Child Abuse America. 500 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 200, Chicago, IL 60611-3703. Telephone: 1-800-CHILDREN or (312) 663-3520. Fax: (312) 939-8962 email: mailbox@preventchildabuse.org Web site: http://www.preventchildabuse.org

  • Parents Anonymous. 675 W. Foothill Blvd., Suite 220, Claremont, CA 91711-3475. Telephone: (909) 621-6184. Fax: (909) 625-6304. Web site: http://www.parentsanonymous.org

Child sexual abuse
Negligence
Physical abuse
Child abuse
Abused children
Psychological child abuse

abuse

 [ah-būs´] misuse, maltreatment, or excessive use.child abuse see child abuse.domestic abuse abuse of a person by another person with whom the victim is living, has lived, or with whom a significant relationship exists. The abuse may take the form of verbal abuse, sexual abuse, physical battering, or psychological (emotional) unavailability. Abuse is a learned behavior and has an escalating cycle; abusive behavior cuts across all racial, ethnic, educational, and socioeconomic boundaries.drug abuse see drug abuse.elder abuse maltreatment of an older adult, ranging from passive neglect of needs to overt mental, physical, or sexual assault.physical abuse any act resulting in a nonaccidental physical injury, including not only intentional assault but also the results of unreasonable punishment.psychoactive substance abuse substance abuse.sexual abuse any act of a sexual nature performed in a criminal manner, as with a child or with a nonconsenting adult, including rape, incest, oral copulation, and penetration of genital or anal opening with a foreign object. The term also includes lewd or lascivious acts with a child; any sexual act that could be expected to trouble or offend another person when done by someone motivated by sexual interest; acts related to sexual exploitation, such as those related to pornography, prostitution involving minors, or coercion of minors to perform obscene acts.substance abuse a substance use disorder characterized by the use of a mood or behavior-altering substance in a maladaptive pattern resulting in significant impairment or distress, such as failure to fulfill social or occupational obligations or recurrent use in situations in which it is physically dangerous to do so or which end in legal problems, but without fulfilling the criteria for dependence" >substance dependence. Specific disorders are named for their etiology, such as alcohol abuse and anabolic steroid abuse. DSM-IV includes specific abuse disorders for alcohol, amphetamines or similar substances, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, PCP or similar substances, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics. See also drug abuse.

child

 [chīld] the human young, from infancy to puberty.child abuse the nonaccidental use of physical force or the nonaccidental act of omission by a parent or other custodian responsible for the care of a child. Child abuse encompasses malnutrition and other kinds of neglect through ignorance as well as deliberate withholding from the child of the necessary and basic physical care, including the medical and dental care necessary for the child to grow up without threat to his or her physical and emotional survival. Examples of physical abuse range from burns and exposure to extreme cold to beating, poisoning, strangulation, and withholding of food and water. Members of the health care team should be alert for signs of child abuse and aware of the proper procedure for reporting suspected cases to local authorities.
Abusive parents come from all socioeconomic groups. Many have themselves been abused as children. They typically lack parenting skills and do not understand the normal developmental stages through which children progress and demand performance from their children that is clearly beyond a child's capability. Some engage in role reversal, looking to the child for protection and loving response, while at the same time denying the child satisfaction of his or her own needs. The majority of identified abusive parents are believed to want professional help in changing their behavior.abused child/adult in the omaha system" >omaha system, a client problem in the psychosocial domain, defined as a child or adult subjected to nonaccidental physical or emotional injury.autistic child a child suffering from autistic disorder.exceptional child a child with special learning needs; he or she may have learning disabilities, be handicapped, or be gifted.neglected child/adult in the omaha system, a client problem in the psychosocial domain, defined as a child or adult deprived of minimally accepted standards of food, shelter, clothing, and care.

child a·buse

the psychological, emotional, and sexual abuse of a child, typically by a parent, stepparent, or parent surrogate. See: domestic violence.
Paediatrics A tragedy that claims 2,000–5,000 lives/year and causes countless injuries in the USA; it is often first recognised by characteristic radiologic findings
Social medicine Behaviour by a parent or guardian that causes significant negative emotional or physical consequences in a child
Types Physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect

child abuse

Battered child syndrome, trauma 'X' Public health A tragedy that claims 2000-5000 lives/yr and causes countless injuries in the US; CA is often first recognized by characteristic radiologic findings–eg metaphyseal fragmentation, incomplete 'bucket handles', old fractures, sub-periosteal hematomas–with epiphyseal dislocations, metaphyseal cupping, shortening of long bone shafts, and a ball-and-socket configuration, pelvic fractures, fractures of posterior ribs, spine, and sternum, a post-mortem radiologic survey may be required to convict the caretaker/parent of manslaughter Social medicine Behavior by a parent or guardian that causes significant negative emotional or physical consequences in a child Types Physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, neglect. See Batttered child, Child maltreatment, Domestic violence, Emotional abuse, Neglect, Physical abuse, Sexual abuse, Shaken-baby syndrome.

child a·buse

(chīld ă-byūs') The physical, emotional, or sexual maltreatment of a child.
See: domestic violence

child abuse

Active assault or physical or emotional neglect of a child. Characteristic injuries include finger-shaped bruises, bruises at different stages, mouth injuries especially tearing of the fold of membrane behind the centre of the upper lip and small bruises or burns on the face. Unexplained fractures or X ray evidence of old, untreated fractures are common, as are injuries which are out of proportion to the claimed cause.

child a·buse

(chīld ă-byūs') Psychological, emotional, and sexual abuse of a child, typically by a parent, stepparent, or parent surrogate.
See: domestic violence

Child Abuse


Related to Child Abuse: child neglect, child support, Emotional abuse, Physical abuse, Animal abuse

Child Abuse

Physical, sexual, or emotional mistreatment or neglect of a child.

Child Abuse has been defined as an act, or failure to act, on the part of a parent or caretaker that results in the death, serious physical or emotional harm, Sexual Abuse, or exploitation of a child, or which places the child in an imminent risk of serious harm (42 U.S.C.A. § 5106g). Child-abuse laws raise difficult legal and political issues, pitting the right of children to be free from harm, on the one hand, against the right of families to privacy and the rights of parents to raise and discipline their children without government interference, on the other.

The mistreatment of children at the hands of parents or caretakers has a long history. For centuries, this behavior was shielded by a system of laws that gave children few, if any, rights. Under English Common Law, children were treated as property owned by the parents. Parents, particularly fathers, had great latitude over the treatment and discipline of children. This outlook was carried to the American colonies and incorporated into early laws in the United States.

One of the first cases to bring national attention to child abuse arose in the early 1870s. An eight-year-old New York orphan named Mary Ellen Wilson complained of being whipped and beaten nearly every day by her foster family. Her case captured the attention of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). An attorney for the ASPCA took Wilson's case, arguing that as members of the animal kingdom, children are entitled to the same legal protections from cruelty as are animals. A judge heard evidence that Wilson's foster family, the Connollys, routinely beat her, locked her in a bedroom, and made her sleep on the floor. Charged with Assault and Battery, Wilson's foster mother was convicted and sentenced to one year of hard labor. Even more significantly, publicity surrounding Wilson's case led to the establishment, in 1874, of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. The following year, the New York Legislature passed a statute that authorized such societies to file complaints of child abuse with law enforcement agencies.

In 1962, an article in a major medical journal again brought national attention to the issue by identifying the symptoms that can indicate child abuse. The article, by Dr. Henry Kempe, appeared in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) and discussed a diagnosis for child abuse. The article resulted in widespread awareness of child abuse and prompted further public discussion on ways to address the problem. By 1970, every state had enacted laws requiring certain professionals, such as teachers and doctors, to report incidents of suspected child abuse to law enforcement agencies. In 1974, the Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (42 U.S.C.A. §§ 5105–5106) became law, authorizing federal funding for states to identify child abuse and to offer protective services for abused children.

Statutes make up one component of a state's child-protective services; another component, the child-protective services agency, implements the statutes. Reporting statutes, which vary from state to state, require that certain professionals report suspected child abuse, whereas others, such as neighbors, are entitled but not required to do so. Other statutes define child abuse. For example, in some states, officially recognized physical abuse occurs only when a child suffers a specified type of injury, whereas in other states, any serious injury that is not accidental in nature is considered abuse. Sexual abuse of children generally need not cause injury; any sexual act performed on a child can be considered abuse. Similarly, state statutes categorize as child abuse any neglect of a child that places the child at risk, regardless of whether the child is actually injured. Before substantiating a report of emotional abuse of a child, state statutes generally require a finding of actual harm. Still other statutes specify procedures for investigating child abuse, determining whether a report of abuse is substantiated, intervening to protect an abused child from further harm, and maintaining records of child abuse reports.

When allegations of abuse meet the statutory definitions, the state's child-protective services agency or a law enforcement agency steps in to investigate. Child-protective services agencies generally investigate allegations only when the child's parent or guardian is suspected of causing the abuse or of allowing it to occur. Family Law presumes that the parent or guardian will protect the child from abuse by other parties and that he or she will contact law enforcement agencies to investigate incidents of abuse by other parties when the parent is not causing or allowing the abuse.

Caseworkers for child-protective services investigate abuse allegations most commonly by interviewing or visiting with the child, the child's parents or guardians, and other sources such as physicians and teachers. If an agent finds evidence that supports a conclusion that the child has been abused, the agency deems the allegations substantiated. The next step is intervention.

Intervention can mean many different things. Frequently, when the risk of further abuse is immediate and significant, child-protective services agents will place the child temporarily in a foster home. Alternatively, agents may monitor the family or may provide counseling in order to curb the threat of abuse. If a family does not cooperate with the intervention efforts of child-protective services, the agency may take the case before a judge, who may determine that abuse or neglect has occurred. He or she may issue a court order mandating the agency's intervention. In extreme cases, agents may remove the child from the home permanently; following a judicial termination of parental rights, the child is then placed for Adoption. Another function of state child-protective services is record keeping, which is accomplished through a system known as the central registry. The central registry contains information about child abuse reports—both substantiated and unsubstantiated—such as the names of the child and of the suspected abuser and the final determination made by the child-protective services worker. This system helps agents in investigating current reports of abuse because it allows them to compare any previous accusations, particularly within the same family. The registry also supplies statistics about child abuse, which help the agency and the state legislature to enact appropriate laws and policies and to provide adequate funding for child-protective services. In some states, other parties may have access to the registry. For example, a day-care center may check the registry before hiring employees, or an adoption agency may check the registry before placing an infant with a family.

Few doubt that state child-protective services agencies provide a valuable service by responding to allegations of child abuse. But such agencies also have their critics. Many people who have been accused of child abuse, particularly parents, object to the way in which these agencies routinely remove children from their homes when child abuse is suspected. Children are traumatized by being taken from their parents, and allegations of abuse are frequently unfounded, these critics claim. Contentious Child Custody battles sometimes prompt false accusations of physical or sexual abuse, costing the accused time and money in the fight to reclaim their children and their reputations. Others object to the names of the accused being included on the central registry even when the accusations are unsubstantiated. The backlash against child-protective services spurred the establishment, in 1984, of an information and support group known as Victims of Child Abuse Laws (VOCAL). VOCAL claims to have thousands of members nationwide, and its members lobby for new laws that protect not only children but also parents who are falsely accused of being abusive or negligent.

Despite increased legislation and penalties for child abuse, extreme cases continue to appear and to sustain the debates over child abuse laws. Such cases include the Schoo case in suburban Chicago, which received widespread media coverage. In December 1992, David Schoo, a 45-year-old electrical engineer, and his 35-year-old wife, Sharon Schoo, a homemaker, flew to Acapulco, Mexico, for a Christmas vacation, leaving their daughters, nine-year-old Nicole Schoo and four-year-old Diana Schoo, home alone. The Schoos provided their daughters only with cereal and frozen dinners to eat and a note telling them when to go to bed. One day during their parents' absence, the girls left the house when a smoke alarm sounded. As they stood barefoot in the snow, a neighbor found them, learned of their situation, and called the police.

The Schoos were arrested while still on the plane that returned them from Mexico nine days after they had left their children. Following their indictment on various state charges of child endangerment and cruelty, a Grand Jury also found evidence that the Schoos had beaten, kicked, and choked their children in order to discipline them. In April 1993, the Schoos plea-bargained, agreeing to serve two years of Probation and 30 days of house arrest while the girls remained in foster care. In August 1993, the Schoos agreed to give up their parental rights and placed their daughters up for permanent adoption.

Another nationally publicized case raised questions regarding the effectiveness of child-protective services and implicated social workers charged with protecting the victim. Two-yearold Bradley McGee, of Lakeland, Florida, died in July 1989 from massive head injuries after his stepfather, 23-year-old Thomas E. Coe, repeatedly plunged him head-first into a toilet. Coe later testified that he had become angry when the child had soiled his pants. McGee's 21-year-old mother, Sheryl McGee Coe, pleaded no contest to second-degree murder and aggravated child abuse for allowing her husband to abuse McGee, and received a 30-year prison sentence. Thomas Coe, convicted of first-degree murder and aggravated child abuse, received a sentence of life in prison.

The McGee case alarmed the public not only because of the harsh physical abuse that caused the toddler's death but also because of what many perceived to be a failure in the system that is designed to protect children like Bradley McGee. Two months before his death, Bradley had been living with foster parents owing to allegations of abuse at the hands of the Coes. Despite strong objections by the foster parents, caseworkers for Florida's Health and Rehabilitative Services returned McGee to his mother and stepfather, determining them to be fit parents.

Public reaction was strong following the news of Bradley's death. Four social workers were prosecuted for negligently handling the case, but only the main caseworker, Margaret Barber, was convicted, for disregarding a report from a psychologist who had warned that the Coes were unfit parents. The publicity shed light on problems within Florida's child-protective services agency, including severe understaffing, and led to new laws that emphasize keeping children safe over keeping families together and that also increase funding for more social workers. A Florida appellate court later overturned Barber's felony conviction but left standing a misdemeanor conviction for failing to report child abuse.

In 1997, a controversial court decision led to a new legal concept: abuse of an unborn child. Traditionally, courts have refused to hold a woman who causes injuries to her own fetus criminally liable for the injuries. But in August 1977, the Supreme Court of South Carolina affirmed the criminal conviction of a woman whose crack cocaine usage while pregnant caused the fetus to be born with cocaine in its system, (Whitner v. State, 328 S.C. 1, 492 S.E. 2d 777 [1997]). By regarding the fetus as a person, the 3–2 majority concluded that the mother was guilty of criminal child neglect. In January 2003, the state court revisited its holding in Whitner when it voted 3–2 to uphold the 12-year sentence of a woman who had been convicted under the state's homicide-by-child-abuse law after her cocaine use had resulted in a stillbirth. (State v. McKnight, 353 S.C. 238, 577 S.E. 2d 456 [2003]).

In early 2002, a major child-abuse scandal involving priests shook the Catholic Church. Although child-abuse litigation against priests is hardly new, the public was shocked by the revelation that senior church officials had covered up the facts about widespread abuse. Beginning with allegations against church officials in Massachusetts, the scandal swiftly became national in scope. By year's end, 432 U.S. priests had resigned; at least 1,205 more had been accused of child sex abuse; church officials paid hundreds of millions of dollars to settle victims' lawsuits; and seven grand jury probes continued nationwide.

At the epicenter of the scandal was Boston-based Cardinal Bernard F. Law. Following the molestation conviction of former priest John Geoghan in January 2002, it emerged that Law had known of Geoghan's abuse during the 1980s yet had merely reassigned him to a new parish. More abuse ensued and ultimately led to over $10 million in settlements with victims. As fresh allegations emerged throughout the year, Law came under bitter public rebuke for allegedly shielding abusive priests from scrutiny, footing their legal bills, and either allowing them to remain on the job or reassigning them to new, unsuspecting parishes. Critics charged that such policies failed to protect children. With church attendance and donations reportedly in decline, the U.S. Conference of Bishops responded by instituting a policy requiring bishops to report abuse allegations to civil authorities. The church also began cleaning house: Following a meeting with the Pope, Law resigned in December 2002.

With most investigations continuing in 2003, grand juries probed possible criminal actions by church officials in Massachusetts, New York, Philadelphia, Phoenix, St. Louis, Los Angeles, and Cincinnati. Even with Law and seven bishops under subpoena, and with evidence of what was called an elaborate cover-up, Massachusetts attorney general Thomas Reilly dampened expectations for a criminal prosecution, due to barriers under state law to holding a superior liable for the actions of a subordinate. In New York, which concluded its probe in February 2003, no charges were brought because the five-year Statute of Limitations had expired. But grand jurors there issued a blistering 181-page report alleging that church officials had protected 58 sexually abusive priests and that they had intimidated victims in order to prevent legal action. The New York archdiocese denied the allegations.

Legislation at the state and federal levels continues to change to meet the goal of protecting children from abuse and neglect while protecting families from the damage of false accusations.

Further readings

Ahearn, James. 2003. "Quantifying Priestly Abuse." The Record (January 15).

Bayles, Fred. 2002. "Seven Grand Juries Examine Bishops." USA Today (June 20).

Cooperman, Alan. 2003. "N.Y. Grand Jury Faults Diocese on Handling of Sexual Abuse." Washington Post (February 11).

Ferdinand, Pamela. 2002. "Archdiocese Agrees to Report Past Sex Abuse Allegations." Washington Post (January 25).

Lavoie, Denise. 2002. "Boston Cardinal Bernard Law, Other Bishops Subpoenaed to Testify by Grand Jury." AP Worldstream (December 13).

Moore, Jill D. 1995. "Charting a Course between Scylla and Charybdis: Child Abuse Registries and Procedural Due Process." North Carolina Law Review 73.

Simpson, Victor L. 2002. "Boston's Cardinal Law Resigns After Months of Public Outrage That He Failed to Protect Children." AP Worldstream (December 13).

Zoll, Rachel. 2002. "Boston Scandal Leads Other U.S. Catholic Dioceses to Open up About Sex Abuse." AP World-stream (March 6).

Cross-references

Parent and Child.

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