Cholecystitis and Cholelithiasis
Cholecystitis and Cholelithiasis
| DRG Category: | 412 |
| Mean LOS: | 8.2 days |
| Description: | SURGICAL: Cholecystectomy With C.D.E. With CC |
| DRG Category: | 418 |
| Mean LOS: | 5.1 days |
| Description: | SURGICAL: Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Without C.D.E. With CC |
Cholecystitis is an inflammation of the gallbladder wall; it may be either acute or chronic. It is almost always associated with cholelithiasis, or gallstones, which lodge in the gallbladder, cystic duct, or common bile duct. Silent gallstones are so common that most of the American public may have them at some time; only stones that are symptomatic require treatment. In developed countries, the prevalence is 10% to 20%, and in the United States, approximately 20 million people have gallstones.
Gallstones are most commonly made of either cholesterol or bilirubin and calcium. If gallstones obstruct the neck of the gallbladder or the cystic duct, the gallbladder can become infected with bacteria such as Escherichia coli. The primary agents, however, are not the bacteria but mediators such as members of the prostaglandin family. The gallbladder becomes enlarged up to two to three times normal size, thus decreasing tissue perfusion. If the gallbladder becomes ischemic as well as infected, necrosis, perforation, and sepsis can follow.
Causes
Cholesterol is the major component of most gallstones in North America, leading to speculation that the high-fat diet common to many North Americans is the explanation for their increased frequency. Supporting theories that point to a high-fat diet note that acute attacks of cholelithiasis may be precipitated by fasting and sudden weight loss.
Genetic considerations
Cholecystitis and cholelithiasis appear to be caused by the actions of several genes and the environment working together. Studies suggest that genetic factors account for approximately 30% of susceptibility to gallstone formation. While specific genetic mechanisms have not been elucidated, many candidate genes (e.g., ABCB4 and ABCG8), including those that increase susceptibility to risk factors such as obesity, are under investigation.
Gender, ethnic/racial, and life span considerations
The incidence of gallbladder disease increases with age. Most patients are middle-aged or older women, often women who have borne several children and gained weight during the aging process. Because there is a tendency for gallbladder disease to be familial, some young people of both sexes with a familial history as well as young women who have taken oral contraceptives can be affected. Risk factors include obesity; middle age; female gender; and Northern European (Scandinavian), Native American, or Hispanic/Latino ancestry. Prevalence of gallstones is high in whites and low in people of Asian and African descent; however, blacks/African Americans with sickle cell disease may have gallstones at a younger age than other populations. Children with sickle cell disease, serious illness, and hemolytic conditions as well as those on total parenteral nutrition are at higher risk for gallbladder disease.
Global health considerations
The incidence of cholecystitis appears to be greater in Hispanic and northern European countries. Several European studies indicated a greater incidence in females and in those older than 60. Cholelithiasis has an increased prevalence among people of Scandinavian and Hispanic/Latino ancestry and decreased prevalence in people living in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia.
Assessment
History
Cholecystitis often begins as a mild intolerance to fatty food. The patient experiences discomfort after a meal, sometimes with nausea and vomiting, flatulence, and an elevated temperature. Over a period of several months or even years, symptoms progressively become more severe. Ask the patient about the pattern of attacks; some mistake severe gallbladder attacks for a heart attack until they recall similar, less severe episodes that have preceded it. An acute attack of cholecystitis is often associated with gallstones, or cholelithiasis. The classic symptom is pain in the right upper quadrant that may radiate to the right scapula, called biliary colic. Onset is usually sudden, with the duration from less than 1 to more than 6 hours. If the flow of bile has become obstructed, the patient may pass clay-colored stools and dark urine.
Physical examination
The most common symptom is upper abdominal pain. Patients often experience nausea and vomiting as well. The patient with an acute gallbladder attack appears acutely ill, is in a great deal of discomfort, and sometimes is jaundiced. A low-grade fever is often present, especially if the disease is chronic and the walls of the gallbladder have become infected. Right upper quadrant pain is intense in acute attacks and requires no physical examination. It is often followed by residual aching or soreness for up to 24 hours. A positive Murphy’s sign, which is positive palpation of a distended gallbladder during inhalation, may confirm a diagnosis. Elderly people may present with vague symptoms such as localized tenderness and without pain and fever. Children may also present without classic findings.
Psychosocial
The patient with an acute attack of cholelithiasis may be in extreme pain and very upset. The experience may be complicated by guilt if the patient has been advised by the physician in the past to cut down on fatty foods and lose weight. The attack may also be very frightening if it is confused with a heart attack.
Diagnostic highlights
| Test | Normal Result | Abnormality With Condition | Explanation |
|---|---|---|---|
| White blood cell (WBC) count | Adult males and females 4,500–11,000/μL | Infection and inflammation elevate the WBC count | Leukocytosis; WBCs range from 12,000 to 15,000/μL; if > 20,000, the condition may be associated with gangrene or perforation |
| Ultrasound scan | Normal gallbladder | Gallbladder wall thickening, pericholecystic fluid collections | Sensitive/specific test for cholelithiasis; identifies presence of fluid collection |
Other Tests: Biliary scintigraphy such as hydroxy iminodiacetic acid (HIDA) scan can show nonfilling of the gallbladder; biliary scintigraphy and ultrasound are the diagnostic tests most commonly used. HIDA scans have sensitivity of greater than 94% and specificity 65% to 85% for acute cholecystitis. Supporting tests include phosphatase, aspartate amino transferase, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, serum amylase, and serum bilirubin levels; oral cholecystogram; and computed tomography. An intravenous cholangiogram may be used to differentiate cholelithiasis from other causes of extrahepatic obstruction.
Primary nursing diagnosis
Diagnosis
Pain (acute) related to obstruction and inflammationOutcomes
Comfort level; Pain control behavior; Pain level; Symptom severityInterventions
Analgesic administration; Anxiety reduction; Environmental management: Comfort; Pain management; Medication management; Patient-controlled analgesia assistancePlanning and implementation
Collaborative
medical.
Medical management may include oral bile acid therapy. Antibiotics may be given to manage infection along with bowel rest, intravenous hydration, correction of electrolyte imbalances, and pain management with follow-up care. Criteria for outpatient treatment include that the patient is febrile, with no evidence of obstruction on laboratory assessment and sonogram, no underlying medical problems, adequate pain control, and proximity to an acute care facility if needed from home. However, given the effectiveness of laparoscopic cholecystectomy, the only patients who will receive medical dissolution are generally those who are nonobese patients with very small cholesterol gallstones and a functioning gallbladder.surgical.
There are several surgical or procedural treatment options. The one seen most commonly today is a laparoscopic cholecystectomy, which is performed early (within 48 hours of acute onset of symptoms) in the course of the disease when there is minimum inflammation at the base of the gallbladder. It is considered the standard of care for the surgical management of cholecystectomy. The procedure is performed with the abdomen distended by an injection of carbon dioxide, which lifts the abdominal wall away from the viscera and prevents injury to the peritoneum and other organs. A laparoscopic cholecystectomy is done either as an outpatient procedure or with less than 24 hours of hospitalization. After the surgery, the patient may complain of pain from the presence of residual carbon dioxide in the abdomen.The traditional open cholecystectomy is performed on patients with large stones as well as with other abnormalities that need to be explored at the time of surgery. This procedure is particularly appropriate up to 72 hours after onset of acute cholecystitis. Timing of the operation is controversial. Early cholecystectomy has the advantage of resolving the acute condition early in its course. Delayed cholecystectomy can be performed after the patient recovers from initial symptoms and acute inflammation has subsided, generally 2 to 3 months after the acute event.
Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, similar to the type used to dissolve renal calculi, is now also used for small stones. For those patients who are not good surgical candidates, both methods have the advantage of being noninvasive. However, they have the disadvantage of leaving in place a gallbladder that is diseased, with the same propensity to form stones as before treatment.
Pharmacologic highlights
| Medication or Drug Class | Dosage | Description | Rationale |
|---|---|---|---|
| Oral bile acid therapy; ursodeoxycholic acid | 10–15 mg/kg per day for 6–12 mo | Nonsurgical method to dissolve gallstones | Used for small stones (< 10 mm in diameter) in a functioning gallbladder in nonobese patients |
| Antibiotics; ciprofloxacin, meropenem, imipenem/cilastatin, ampicillin/sulbactam, piperacillin/tazobactam | Varies with drug | Antibiotic regimen is focused on those appropriate for typical bowel flora (gram-negative rods and anaerobes): third-generation cephalosporin or aminoglycoside with metronidazole | Manage bacteria that are typical bowel flora |
| Demerol | 25–100 mg IM, IV | Opiates relieve pain and promote spasms of the biliary duct | Pain is severe; analgesia should be offered only after definitive diagnosis has occurred |
Other Drugs: The pain is treated by both analgesics and anticholinergics such as dicyclomine (Bentyl) during acute attacks. The anticholinergics relax the smooth muscle, preventing biliary contraction and pain. Antiemetics may be administered, particularly promethazine or procholperazine. If inflammation of the gallbladder has led to gallstones and obstruction of bile flow, replacement of the fat-soluble vitamins is important to supplement the diet. Bile salts may be prescribed to aid digestion and vitamin absorption as well as to increase the ratio of bile salts to cholesterol, aiding in the dissolution of some stones.
Independent
During an acute attack, remain with the patient to provide comfort, to monitor the result of interventions, and to allay anxiety. Explain all procedures in short and simple terms. Provide explanations to the family and significant others.
If the patient requires surgery, the nurse’s first priority is the maintenance of airway, breathing, and circulation. Although most patients return from surgery or a procedure breathing on their own, if stridor or airway obstruction occurs, create airway patency with an oral or nasal airway and notify the surgeon immediately. If the patient’s breathing is inadequate, maintain breathing with a manual resuscitator bag until the surgeon makes a further evaluation. The high incision makes deep breathing painful, leading to shallow respirations and impaired gas exchange. Splinting the incision while encouraging the patient to cough and breathe deeply helps both pain and gas exchange. Elevate the head of the bed to reduce pressure on the diaphragm and abdomen.
Patients not undergoing surgery or a procedure need a thorough education. Explain the disease process, the possible complications, and all medications. Teach the patient to avoid high-fat foods; dairy products; and, if the patient is bothered by flatulence, gas-forming foods.
Evidence-Based Practice and Health Policy
McGillicuddy, E.A., Schuster, K.M., Barre, K., Suarez, L., Hall, M.R., Kaml, G.J., …Longo, W.E. (2012). Non-operative management of acute cholecystitis in the elderly. British Journal of Surgery, 99(9), 1254–1261.
- Results from a retrospective study among 475 patients over age 65 revealed that patients with comorbidities were more likely to be treated with nonsurgical medical management for acute cholecystitis than patients without comorbidities. In this sample, 61.1% underwent cholecystectomy and 38.9% received nonsurgical medical management.
- Patients who received nonsurgical treatments were more likely to be nonambulatory (27% versus 7.6%, p < 0.001) and have coronary artery disease (79.5% versus 67.6%, p = 0.004) when compared to the patients who received surgical intervention.
- Among patients who received surgical intervention, 20% experienced complications including acute respiratory failure, pneumonia, myocardial infarction, and sepsis. However, the mortality rate during hospitalization among patients who received nonsurgical medical management was 8.1%.
Documentation guidelines
- Physical response: Patency of airway; adequacy of breathing and circulation; vital signs; use of splinting or other measures to control pain while performing deep breathing
- Pain: Location, duration, quality, response to pain medications
- Type and amount of drainage from Penrose drain or T tube
- Condition of surgical incision and surrounding skin