Books

the most important historical means, and one still developing, for recording semantic information, primarily a connected text of considerable length. Books are designed for repeated reproduction and for transmission in time and space. The text of a book is imprinted on sheets by means of signs (letters or other graphic symbols), which are to be apprehended visually (with the exception of books for the blind, intended to be read by touch). The modern book is a codex—a set of bound pages with a text and illustrations and with outer protective components (binding and cover). For statistical purposes a book is a printed work in the form of a codex with an established minimum number of pages (in accordance with UNESCO specifications, more than three printer’s sheets, or not less than 48 pages).

Books are an extremely important means of popular, scholarly, and technical communication and play a great role as weapons in political and ideological struggle, in the dissemination of knowledge, and in upbringing and education. As a sociopolitical, artistic, and scientific work the book is partisan and has a distinct class character. Books are the product of social consciousness and, consequently, are instruments in the class struggle. In all periods books have served as powerful means of popularizing and spreading political views. Lenin wrote that “the book is an enormous force” (Lenin i kniga, 1964, p. 362). Lenin’s tenet that two cultures exist in every national culture fully applies to books. The book plays a revolutionary or reactionary role, depending on the social forces whose ideology it reflects and propagates and on who controls the equipment and means of book production —the publishing houses, printing shops, paper, and so forth. In a capitalist society books propagating reactionary ideas are used by the ruling classes as a means of political and national oppression of the broad working masses. In a socialist society books serve the interests of the people and are closely bound up with the life of the people. They are based on the principles of partiinost’ (party-mindedness), narodnost’ (conformity to people’s needs), and nauchnosf (scientific approach), of active humanism, and of proletarian internationalism.

Books are the product of knizhnoe delo (“book industry”), the sum total of the branches of culture and production associated with the creation and manufacture of books, their distribution, storage, description, and study. The selection of scientific, literary, or artistic works for printed reproduction and distribution, the party and professional evaluation of these works, and their preparation for publication are functions of publishing. The reproduction of books is carried out by the printing industry. The distribution and popularization of books are the functions of the book trade. The collection, special processing, and storage of books, as well as their popularization, are within the province of libraries and library science, which also provide guidance to readers. Bibliographies inform readers about books and other published works and actively popularize them. Books and book publishing are studied in their historical and contemporary aspects by the scholarly discipline known as book science.

Manuscript books. The emergence of books is closely linked with the creation and development of writing, whose structural characteristics (a system of signs, the order of their disposition, the traits of their outlines) to a considerable degree determined the book’s form, as did the writing material and the writing instruments. In antiquity there were two basic types of books: the roll (Egypt, Greece, Rome, the states of the ancient East) and the stack of tablets or leaves (the palm-leaf books in India and Ceylon, Roman polyptychs). In the fourth and third millennia B.C., books in the form of papyrus rolls appeared in Egypt. From the second century B.C., parchment rolls were used. The average length of a roll did not exceed 10 m, although rolls over 40 m long are known to have existed, for example, the Harris Papyrus in the British Museum. In ancient Egypt the making of books was an extremely complex and diverse activity of scribes and artists, who decorated the roll manuscripts with ornaments and pictures. A characteristic trait was the striving for a functional and stylistic connection between the hieroglyphic text and the conventionally symbolic pictures.

The prototype of the modern codex book was the polyptych, consisting of several small waxed tablets fastened together, used for writing by the ancient Romans. The oldest extant parchment codex, the Codex Sinaiticus, dates from the fourth century. By comparison with the roll, the codex could contain more information and was more durable. Turning bound pages proved to be more convenient for writing and reading than unwinding and simultaneously winding a roll. The codex acquired a title page (from the Latin titulus, “inscription,” “title”) and pagination. With the codex, binding also appeared, initially made from several glued sheets of papyrus or parchment and later with wooden boards. Craftsmen of the manuscript book strove for a harmonious positioning on the page of text, illustrations, and ornamentation.

Beginning in the 13th century paper became the basic writing material in Europe. The centers of book production during the Middle Ages were the scriptoria, where rudimentary division of labor was employed. The text was written by the scribe, the spaces left by him for headings and initial letters were filled in by the rubricator, and the decorations and miniatures were executed by the illuminators and miniaturists. The bindings and the frames of precious stones were made by binders and gold-smiths. During the early Middle Ages books were richly decorated with ornamentation depicting fish and birds. In England and Ireland from the seventh through the ninth century, interlace ornament predominated. Masterpieces of the bookmaking art of this period were the Book of Durrow (c. 670) and the Book of Kells (c. 800). In the Carolingian age, when bookmaking centers arose in Paris, Reims, Fulda, and Tours, a unique form of Latin script appeared—the Carolingian minuscule. After the disintegration of the Carolingian empire the monastery on the island of Reichenau (in the Bodensee) became the foremost center of book production. Beginning in the 13th century Gothic script was predominant in European books, and ornamentation became especially important. Unique beauty and a high degree of perfection in execution mark the manuscripts of the calligraphers of the East.

The appearance of books in Russia was linked with the spread of the Slavic script, created in the second half of the ninth century. The earliest extant Russian dated manuscript book is the Ostromir Gospel (1056–57). There are seven dated books from the 11th century and eight from the 12th century. An outstanding survival of book art is the Mstislav Gospel (c. 1117), encased in a costly frame. In Moscow at the turn of the 15th century the Koshka Gospel and the Khitrovo Gospel were created, whose artistic decoration was executed by craftsmen associated with Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev. A large role in the history of the manuscript book of the first half of the 16th century was played by craftsmen influenced by Theodosius the Isograph, who executed ornamentation using metal engravings, for example, the Uvarov Gospel. In the mid-l6th century the state workshop created a multivolume chronicle compilation containing a large number of miniatures. A succession of styles was employed in the ornamentation of Russian manuscript books: old Byzantine, “animal,” Balkan, new Byzantine, and old style type. At first the predominant script was the ustav, replaced in the 14th century by the poluustav.

Printed books. The first method used in the multiple reproduction of books was xylography, printing from wood engravings. The oldest printed book is considered to be a text printed from 12 wooden blocks in Korea between 704 and 751. European woodcuts, which began to appear during the 15th century, were initially pictorial broadsheets, sometimes with a text; later, “block books” with pages printed on one side, known as anopis-thographic books, appeared. Subsequently, the facing and reverse sides of the page were printed on two separate sheets, which were then pasted together (opisthographic books).

A new era in the history of books began with the emergence of printing in Europe, which dates from the 1440’s and is associated with the name of J. Gutenberg (Germany). A masterpiece of early printing was his 42–line Bible; only the text was reproduced by the printing method. The first attempt at a typographic reproduction of ornamentation may be found in P. Schoeffer’s Mainz Psalter (1457), in which publication data and the printer’s mark also appeared for the first time. In 1461, A. Pfister in Bamberg printed a book with woodcut illustrations. During the 1470’s and 1480’s, E. Ratdolt (Venice, Augsburg) introduced multicolored printing in books, began to use gold in printing, and furnished books of a practical nature with drawings and diagrams. During the 15th and 16th centuries printers aimed at creating economical and beautiful type faces suitable for reading texts.

The first printed books in Italy appeared in 1465, in Bohemia and Switzerland in 1468, in the Netherlands in 1469, in France in 1470, in Poland about 1473, in Hungary in 1473, in Spain and Belgium in 1474, and in England in 1477. Books printed before Jan. 1, 1501, are called incunabula, and books published during the first half of the 16th century are known as paleotypes.

The first books to be printed in Cyrillic were those of S. Fiol in Kraków in 1491. Printing in Moscow began in the 1550’s. The first Russian book to be precisely dated was issued by Ivan Fedorov and Petr Mstislavets in 1654 (Acts of the Apostles). In 1574, Ivan Fedorov in L’vov printed the first books in Ukrainian (ABC Book and Acts of the Apostles).

The development of the book as an organic whole was retarded and complicated by mass production. To overcome this contradiction, the most important printer-publishers of the 16th and 17th centuries—the Manutius family in Venice, the Estiennes in France, C. Plantin in Belgium, and the Elzevirs in the Netherlands—developed different types of editions and arrived at the most efficient and aesthetically perfect solutions for their books.

Further development of the printed book was linked with efforts to increase the amount and improve the transmission of information and to achieve specialization by type of publication (scientific, educational, artistic, religious, reference).

The 18th and early 19th centuries saw an increasing separation of the typographic and artistic aspects of bookmaking. This often had the effect of weakening the hitherto close relationship of text and illustrations.

The use of ornamentation cast in type and of rules became widespread.

The invention of lithography (1798) and the innovations in wood engraving (1780’s) facilitated the reproduction of the author’s drawing, and after the mid-19th century made possible a considerable increase in the publication of illustrated editions. Outstanding Russian and West European artists fostered realist tendencies in book illustrations.

From the mid-19th century the pace of technical development in printing accelerated. The invention of the photomechanical method of reproducing pictures opened the way for the extensive use of black-and-white and colored illustrations.

The second half of the 19th century was marked by a growing subordination of bookmaking to publishers’ commercial interests, resulting in the decline of the artistic quality of books intended for large audiences and the emergence of a special category of books designed for bibliophiles. The English writer and artist W. Morris attempted to renew the art of bookmaking by turning to handicraft methods of production. In the late 19th century he published 53 superbly made books. At the turn of the 20th century new stylistic forms emerged, reflecting the aspirations of the painting and graphic arts of the period.

In contemporary capitalist countries the art of bookmaking shows high achievements in printing, particularly in scholarly and art books, although the artistic-pictorial aspect is generally less developed. Reflecting the commercial interests of the publishers, book production is divided into mass editions, with colorful covers and no illustrations, and expensive editions, in whose production major artists frequently participate.

From their earliest appearance, Soviet books have sought to resolve the ideological, educational, and artistic problems that arose during the country’s cultural transformations. In accordance with the goal of making Soviet books accessible to all and instructive in character, Soviet publishers and printers have devoted their primary attention to books for the masses. In the USSR the art of book illustration has been highly developed by leading artists, notably the Moscow engravers V. A. Favorskii, A. I. Kravchenko, A. D. Goncharov, G. A. Echeistov, and M. I. Pikov and the Leningrad artists L. S. Khizhinskii, A. F. Pakhomov, G. D. Epifanov, V. V. Lebedev, V. M. Konashevich, E. I. Charushin, and Iu. A. Vasnetsov. The innovations of the constructivists during the 1920’s and the early 1930’s (L. M. Lisitskii, A. M. Rodchenko) influenced book design and promoted the use of photomontage. N. V. Kuz’min, the Kukryniksy group, D. A. Shmarinov, and E. A. Kibrik illustrated many works of classical literature. Notable contributions to the design of type fonts and books have been made by I. F. Rerberg, S. B. Telingater, and S. M. Pozharskii.

Since the 1950’s, Soviet bookmaking has endeavored to integrate the various elements of the book, giving special attention to problems of organizing the book as a whole (artistic design) and to stylistic problems.

In the mid-20th century, the rapid increase in printed information and the widespread use of new media of mass communications (radio, television, motion pictures) have posed new problems. The place of books within the overall system of mass communications must be more precisely defined. Book organization requires improvement, for example, through using new printed materials, publishing microform editions, improving readability, and supplementing scientific and educational books with sound recordings and stereoscopic pictures. Yet another task is to raise the quality of printing.

Structure and typology of the modern book. The book is attached to its cover by endpapers. The upper and lower edges of the signatures are fastened by braiding with a thickened edge. Sometimes the binding is enclosed in a jacket, which protects the cover and is part of the book’s design. The title page may occupy the second page (duplicate title) or the third page of the book. Some information may be placed in the bastard title, which occupies the book’s first page. The title page is sometimes preceded by a frontispiece. For the organization of the text various methods of rubrication are used. The divisions of a book are sometimes preceded by a half title, giving the name of the individual part. The opening pages of a division are set apart by makeup or artistic embellishment. Type-face and nontype-face methods may be used to accentuate headings or parts of the text. Use of the book is facilitated by running headings—the titles of individual parts found at the top of the printed page—and by pagination. The consecutive numbering of the signatures and the use of direction lines (found on the first or sometimes third page of each section) facilitate the gathering of the sheets in preparation for binding.

The book’s makeup includes the imprint, the table of contents, the foreword (or afterword), annotation, notes, commentaries, indexes, bibliographical lists within the book, appendixes, and footnotes. The table of contents and the imprint are placed in each book, whereas the other elements are primarily found in scholarly publications. The size of a book’s pages is called the publication format.

Books are differentiated according to readership, purpose, and subject matter. With respect to readership, books may be intended for the general reader, for specialists, or for children. In terms of purpose, books are classified as official, scientific, popular-science, educational, literary-artistic, reference, or advertising. An important type of scholarly book is the monograph. Among educational books are textbooks, teaching manuals, methods’ materials, and the like. Characteristic reference publications include dictionaries, encyclopedias, reference works on specialized subjects, books containing instructions and rules, prospectuses, catalogs, calendars, and guidebooks. Books are classified in accordance with library and bibliographical classification systems.

REFERENCES

Lenin i kniga. Moscow, 1964.
Piat’sot let posle Gutenberga, 1468–1968. Moscow, 1968.
400 let russkogo knigopechataniia, vols. 1–2. Moscow, 1964.
Sidorov, A. A. Kniga i zhizn’. Moscow, 1972.
Sidorov, A. A. Istoriia oformleniia russkoi knigi, 2nd ed. Moscow, 1964.
Liublinskii, V. S. Kniga ν istorii chelovecheskogo obshchestva. Moscow, 1972.
Katsprzhak, E. I. Istoriia knigi. Moscow, 1964.
Nemirovskii, E. L. Nachalo slavianskogo knigopechataniia. Moscow, 1971.
Nemirovskii, E. L. Vozniknovenie knigopechataniia ν Moskve: Ivan Fedorov. Moscow, 1964.
Kniga ν Rossii, parts 1–2. Edited by V. Ia. Adariukov and A. A. Sidorov. Moscow, 1924–25.
Nazarov, A. I. Oktiabr’ i kniga. Moscow, 1968.
Cherniak, A. Ia. Istoriia tekhnicheskoi knigi, part 1. Moscow, 1969.
Pakhomov, V. V. Knizhnoe iskusstvo, books 1–2. Moscow, 1961–62.
Liakhov, V. N. Oformlenie sovetskoi knigi. Moscow, 1966.
Liakhov, V. N. Ocherki teorii iskusstva knigi. Moscow, 1971.
Kniga: Issledovaniia i materialy, collections 1–25. Moscow, 1959–72.
Iskusstvo knigi (anthology), issues 1–7. Moscow, 1960–71.
Aldis, H. The Printed Book. Cambridge, 1951.
Barge, H. Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst. Leipzig [1940].
Dahl, S. Histoire du livre de l’antiquité à nos jours, 2nd ed. Paris, 1960.
Flocon, A. L’Univers des livres. Paris [1961].
Labarre, A. Histoire du livre. Paris, 1970.
McMurtrie, D. C. The Book. New York [1943].
Steinberg, S. H. Five Hundred Years of Printing. London, 1959.

V. N. LIAKHOV and E. L. NEMIROVSKII

Books

Related to Books: Good Books

Censorship

The suppression or proscription of speech or writing that is deemed obscene, indecent, or unduly controversial.

The term censorship derives from the official duties of the Roman censor who, beginning in 443 b.c., conducted the census by counting, assessing, and evaluating the populace. Originally neutral in tone, the term has come to mean the suppression of ideas or images by the government or others with authority.

Throughout history, societies practiced various forms of censorship in the belief that the community, as represented by the government, was responsible for molding the individual. For example, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato advocated various degrees of censorship in The Republic; the content of important texts and the dissemination of knowledge were tightly controlled in ancient Chinese society as is much information in modern China; and for centuries the Roman Catholic Church's Index Librorum Prohibitorum proscribed much literature as contrary to the church's teachings.

The English-speaking world began wrestling with issues of censorship in the seventeenth century. In his Areopagitica (1644), John Milton argued in favor of the right to publish, free from government restraint. In the United States, the First Amendment to the Constitution (1787) guarantees Freedom of Speech and Freedom of the Press. When a U.S. government agency attempts to prohibit speech or writing, the party being censored frequently raises these First Amendment rights. Such cases usually involve communication that the government perceives as harmful to itself or the public.

Abortion

In some cases, the government can constitutionally censor the speech of those who receive federal funding. For example, the Supreme Court ruled in Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173, 111 S. Ct. 1759, 114 L. Ed. 2d 233 (1991), that, without restricting First Amendment rights, the government can ban Abortion counseling in federally funded health clinics.

Prisoners' Mail

If the government's interest is penological it also has broader rights to censor speech. Prisoners' outgoing mail can be censored in order to thwart escape plans, shield the recipients from obscene or menacing letters, or circumvent inaccurate or adverse reports about prison conditions. Under the Supreme Court ruling in Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396, 94 S. Ct. 1800, 40 L. Ed. 2d 224 (1974), prison administrators can censor prisoners' personal correspondence only if it is necessary to maintain security, order, or rehabilitation efforts. Such censorship can be neither random nor excessively troublesome.

Entertainment

Perhaps the most visible form of censorship is that affecting the entertainment industry. Theater and film, as types of public entertainment, affect the common interest and can hence be subjected to certain types of governmental regulation. But attempts to regulate or censor often risk obstructing the free speech rights of playwrights, screenwriters, filmmakers, performers, and distributors.

The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that it is lawful to censor obscene entertainment to safeguard children from Pornography and to protect adults from unknowingly or involuntarily viewing indecent materials (Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629, 88 S. Ct. 1274, 20 L. Ed. 2d 195 [1968]). Although Supreme Court interpretation permits individuals to view Obscenity in the privacy of their homes (Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 89 S. Ct. 1243, 22 L. Ed. 2d 542 [1969]), theaters and movie houses are public places and therefore subject to regulation (Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton, 413 U.S. 49, 93 S. Ct. 2628, 37 L. Ed. 2d 446 [1973]). The difficulty with such censorship is in trying to determine what is "obscene."

In miller v. california, 413 U.S. 15, 93 S. Ct. 2607, 37 L. Ed. 2d 419 (1973), the Supreme Court concluded that a work is obscene and can be regulated if it appeals to a viewer's prurient interest; portrays sexual conduct in a patently offensive way; and lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. The Court further ruled that interpretations of this definition may vary across the United States and that communities may apply their own local standards to determine obscenity.

To avoid government censorship, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) regulates itself through a voluntary rating system. The system does not have statutory authority but is used to help the industry conform with statutes designed to protect children. Recognizing a 1968 Supreme Court decision that favored limited censorship for minors (Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629, 88 S. Ct. 1274, 20 L. Ed. 2d 195), the MPAA devised a rating system based on the viewer's age. A G rating signals that subject matter is suitable for general audiences; PG stands for Parental Guidance Suggested; PG-13 strongly advises guidance for children under age 13 because of possibly inappropriate material; R requires accompaniment by an adult for children under age 17, or 18 in some states; and NC-17 or X prohibit anyone under age 17, or 18 in some states, from entering the theater.

Radio and television have also met with governmental pressure to control the content of their broadcasts. Spurred by the belief that violence on television adversely affects children's behavior and attitudes, Congress has attempted several times to encourage the media to adopt voluntary guidelines in the hope that less violence on television will lead to a less violent society. Although none of Congress's acts have been deemed outright censorship, government intrusion into broadcasting to discourage certain types of speech has not been welcomed by all. The various pieces of legislation raise questions about media self-censorship and the role of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in regulating freedom of expression.

In response to congressional pressure the National Association of Broadcasters adopted the Family Viewing Policy in 1974 to limit the first hour of prime-time programming to material suitable for families. The policy was found unconstitutional in 1976 (Writers Guild of America, West, Inc. v. F.C.C., 423 F. Supp. 1064 [C.D. Cal., 1976]).

Congress addressed the content of children's television with the Children's Television Act of 1990 (47 U.S.C.A. §§ 303a–303b [Supp. III 1991]), which limits the amount of advertising on children's television and compels broadcasters to air educational programs. Failure to comply with the act could jeopardize renewal of a station's license. Critics point out that the act has not improved children's programming because of its vague standards and the FCC's disinclination to enforce it.

The Television Violence Act (47 U.S.C.A. § 303c [Supp. III 1991]), proposed in 1986 by Senator Paul Simon (D-Ill.), was signed into law by President george h.w. bush in December 1990. This act, which expired in 1993, was intended to prompt the networks, cable industry, and independent stations to decrease the amount of violence shown on television. Although it did not constitute direct government regulation, the act was criticized as a governmental attempt to impose its values on society by discouraging, if not suppressing, unpopular ideas.The Telecommunications Act of 1996, 110 Stat. 56, required television manufacturers to create a chip, known as the V-chip, which allows users, presumably parents, to block out programs based on their sexual or violent content. The chip, which has been installed in television sets manufactured since 1999, operates in conjunction with a voluntary rating system implemented by TV broadcasters that rates programs for violence and sexual content.

Radio broadcasts have also come under scrutiny. In FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, 438 U.S. 726, 98 S. Ct. 3026, 57 L. Ed. 2d 1073 (1978), the Supreme Court ruled that a daytime broadcast of George Carlin's "Seven Dirty Words" monologue violated the prohibition of indecency in 18 U.S.C.A. § 1464 (1948) and was therefore subject to regulation. To many, this ruling gave the FCC further authority to censor speech and dictate values.

Music

Just as the entertainment industry has faced regulation or censorship for allegedly violent, obscene, or indecent material, so has the recording industry. Claiming that some popular music erodes morals by encouraging violence, drug abuse, and sexual promiscuity, the Parents' Music Resource Center, founded in 1985 by Tipper Gore, the wife of the future vice president, albert gore, successfully lobbied the music industry to place warning labels on records that may feature lyrics inappropriate for children.

Concerned about the rising rate of violent crime against law enforcement officers, the assistant director of public affairs for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) sent a letter in August 1989 to Priority Records to protest a rap group's lyrics. N.W.A., a Los Angeles-based rap group, recorded on its album Straight Outta Compton the song "Fuck tha Police," which violently protested police brutality. Although the letter from the FBI was a protest, not an attempt at regulation, many in the music industry interpreted it as an example of indirect censorship through intimidation.

Perhaps the most famous legal proceedings to censor music involved the rap group 2 Live Crew. In early 1990, a Florida circuit judge banned all sales of the group's album As Nasty As They Wanna Be on the grounds that the lyrics of several of its songs, including "Me So Horny," violated community standards for obscenity. The group brought suit to have the ban lifted in Skyywalker Records v. Navarro, 742 F. Supp. 638 (S.D. Fla. 1990), but the judge upheld the obscenity ruling. A record store owner was arrested for continuing to sell the album and two members of 2 Live Crew were arrested on obscenity charges after a performance. The band members were acquitted of all charges in October 1990, but the debate continues between those demanding free expression in music and those seeking to censor allegedly obscene material.

Art

For almost as long as artists have been creating art, governments have both supported and censored artists' work. Ancient Athens, the Roman Empire, and the medieval Catholic Church financed many projects, whereas totalitarian regimes, for example, banned many works and repressed artists. The U.S. Congress was reluctant to fund art that might subsequently be construed as national art, or as government-approved art until 1960s activism encouraged it to do so. In 1965, the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities was established to foster excellence in the arts. It is composed of two divisions, the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) and the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). Among its many interests, the NEA provides stipends to deserving artists.

Controversy over the role of government support of the arts arose in the late 1980s with two artists who received NEA funding. In 1988, the photographer Andres Serrano received harsh condemnation for his photograph titled Piss Christ, which depicted a plastic crucifix floating in a jar of Serrano's urine. Numerous senators sent letters of protest to the NEA, insisting that the agency cease underwriting vulgar art. A second furor arose in 1989 over the work of another photographer, Robert Mapplethorpe, who received NEA support for his work, which depicted flowers, nude children, and homosexuality and sadomasochism.

Senator jesse helms (R-N.C.) argued the most vociferously against the NEA's choices and introduced legislation to ban funding of "obscene or indecent art" (1989 H.R. 2788 [codified at 20 U.S.C.A. § 953 et seq. (1989)]). The Helms Amendment, adopted in October 1989, gave the NEA great power and latitude to define obscenity and quash alternative artistic visions. To enforce the new amendment, the NEA established an "obscenity pledge," which required artists to promise they would not use government money to create works of an obscene nature. The art world strongly resisted this measure: many museum directors resigned in protest and several well-known artists returned their NEA grants.

Two important cases tested the power of the NEA to censor artistic production. In Bella Lewitsky Dance Foundation v. Frohnmayer, 754 F. Supp. 774 (C.D. Cal. 1991), a dance company refused to sign the obscenity pledge and sued on the ground that the pledge was unconstitutional. A California district court agreed that the pledge violated the First Amendment right to free speech and that its vagueness denied the dance company due process under the Fifth Amendment.

In New School v. Frohnmayer, No. 90-3510 (S.D.N.Y. 1990), the New School for Social Research, in New York City, turned down a grant, claiming that the obscenity pledge acted as Prior Restraint and therefore breached the school's First Amendment rights. Before the constitutionality of the prior restraint argument was decided, the NEA released the school from its obligation to sign the pledge.

The NEA abolished the obscenity pledge in November 1990, but in its place instituted a "decency clause" (1990 Amendments, Pub. L. No. 101-512, § 103(b), 104 Stat. 1963 [codified at 20 U.S.C.A. § 954(d)(1990)]), which required award recipients to ensure that their works met certain standards of decency. Failure to comply with this demand could mean suspension of grant payments.

Again the art world protested. In Finley v. NEA, 795 F. Supp. 1457 (C.D. Cal. 1992), artists known as the NEA Four—Karen Finley, John Fleck, Holly Hughes, and Tim Miller—sued the NEA over the decency clause. A California district court agreed with the artists. The Finley court held that the decency clause, like the obscenity pledge, was unconstitutional because its vagueness denied the artists the due process guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment and because its too-general restriction suppressed speech.

Books

U.S. parents send their children to public schools to receive an education and to learn the fundamental values on which their democratic society is based. Conflict ensues when parents believe that certain schoolbooks contain material that is objectionable on political, moral, or religious grounds and should be banned in order to protect their children from exposure to allegedly harmful ideas. In some instances school boards have responded by physically removing books from school library shelves. In general, advocates of book banning maintain that censorship is warranted to redress social ills, whereas critics believe that freedom of speech is more important and useful to society than imposing values through censorship.

Book banning as a way to remedy social problems was first tested by the Supreme Court in Board of Education v. Pico, 457 U.S. 853, 102 S. Ct. 2799, 73 L. Ed. 2d 435 (1982). In Pico, parents objected to nine books in the high school library, most of which were subsequently removed by the school board. The nine books were Slaughterhouse Five, by Kurt Vonnegut Jr.; Naked Ape, by Desmond Morris; Down These Mean Streets, by Piri Thomas; Best Short Stories of Negro Writers, edited by Langston Hughes; Laughing Boy, by Oliver LaFarge; Black Boy, by Richard Wright; A Hero Ain't Nothin' But a Sandwich, by Alice Childress; Soul on Ice, by eldridge cleaver; and Go Ask Alice, by an anonymous author.

Pico debated the authority of local school boards to censor material in the interest of protecting students. The case reached the Supreme Court because lower courts were unable to devise standards for testing the constitutionality of book removal. The Supreme Court ruled that it is unconstitutional for public school boards to abridge students' First Amendment rights by banning books. Although school boards have the power to determine which books should sit on library shelves, they do not have the authority to censor.

Books published by commercial presses for sale to the general public sometimes meet with harsh condemnation and subsequent action that could be tantamount to censorship. In November 1990, Simon and Schuster canceled its contract with author Bret E. Ellis to publish his novel American Psycho, citing the work's graphic violence and sexual brutality. The National Writers Union decried the cancellation as contrary to free speech and artistic expression and as censorship. The publishing house defended its editorial judgment by claiming it did not want to put its imprint on a book of questionable taste and value. Vintage Books, a division of Random House, soon acquired the novel, and published it in March 1991.

Students' Speech

Students' free speech rights sometimes clash with schools' interest in maintaining control of public education. Students' First Amendment liberties were affirmed by the landmark tinker v. des moines independent community school district, 393 U.S. 503, 89 S. Ct. 733, 21 L. Ed. 2d 731 (1969), which ruled that public school students could not be penalized for wearing symbols, such as black armbands, to protest the Vietnam War.

Two subsequent cases dealing with issues of censorship in school newspapers pointed to a more restrictive judicial view of students' right to free expression. In Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260, 108 S. Ct. 562, 98 L. Ed. 2d 592 (1988), the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a Hazelwood, Missouri, school principal who removed several articles from a student newspaper. The articles dealt with teen pregnancy and a student's feelings about her parents' Divorce. The court in Hazelwood held that a school newspaper is not a public forum, and thus granted school officials the right to determine what type of student speech is appropriate and to regulate such speech.

Three years later, the ruling in Planned Parenthood v. Clark County School District, 941 F.2d 817 (9th Cir. 1991), was based on Hazelwood. In Planned Parenthood, a public high school newspaper solicited advertisements from local businesses, including Planned Parenthood. The principal refused to allow Planned Parenthood to place an advertisement in school publications and Planned Parenthood sued the school district. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld a district court decision that a public high school publication is not a public forum and that the school could therefore accept or reject advertisements. Both Hazelwood and Planned Parenthood concluded that because public high schools are nonpublic forums, school districts can apply a limited degree of censorship.

Hundreds of public universities in the United States have speech codes to regulate students' choice of words. Speech can be constitutionally curtailed in some circumstances. For example, public Colleges and Universities can forbid threats of violence, prohibit obscene language and conduct (although it is extremely difficult to define or prove obscenity), and punish students for using defamatory speech against each other, all without violating the First Amendment. Numerous cases have successfully contested free speech limitations on campus, suggesting that a majority of these codes are unconstitutional.

In Doe v. University of Michigan, 721 F. Supp. 852 (E.D. Mich. 1989), a biopsychology student maintained that the university's speech code prevented him from freely discussing controversial ideas about biologically based differences between the sexes and races. A district court ruled that the university's code proscribed too great a range of speech and therefore was an unconstitutional infringement on the plaintiff's First Amendment rights. The court also held that the overbroad nature of the code denied his due process rights.

A University of Wisconsin student was accused of violating the university's speech codes by yelling rude comments at a woman. In U.W.M. Post, Inc. v. Board of Regents, 774 F. Supp. 1163 (E.D. Wis. 1991), the university's speech code was also struck down as overbroad. Two years later school officials punished fraternity brothers at George Mason University for dressing in drag and staging an "ugly woman contest." In Iota X Chapter v. George Mason University, 993 F.2d 386 (1993), the Fourth Circuit found that the university had violated the First Amendment because it did not sanction the fraternity merely for its conduct, but rather for the message conveyed by the "ugly woman contest," which ran counter to the views the university sought to foster.

Internet

Computer-mediated communication grows explosively every year and in some ways outpaces and obviates current legal principles. The prevailing concept of law applies to real-world events and transactions, and, as those in the legal field are realizing, may unravel when exercised in cyberspace. As more and more people transmit widely divergent messages on the electronic highway, issues of free speech and censorship become increasingly complicated and regulations difficult to enforce.

The first case of criminal prosecution of electronic communication involved the distribution of pornography over an electronic bulletin board system (BBS). In United States v. Thomas, No. CR-94-20019-G (W.D. Tenn. 1994), Robert Thomas and Carleen Thomas were found guilty of disseminating obscene materials by interstate telephone lines and computer. From their home in California, the Thomases ran an adults-only private BBS from which subscribers could download computer graphics files and order sexually explicit photo-graphs and videotapes while on-line. To gather evidence against the couple, a Memphis postal inspector, under an assumed name, downloaded to his computer many of the pornographic electronic files and ordered tapes.

The Thomases were charged with, among other things, transporting obscene materials across state lines. The couple attempted to transfer their case to the Northern District of California, so that their materials would be measured against that community's standards of obscenity, rather than the obscenity standards of the Western District of Tennessee. The district judge denied their request, noting that in obscenity prosecutions the trial can be held either in the district from which the material was sent or where it was received.

The "virtual" nature of cyberspace poses a number of problems for courts and legislatures on the issue of obscenity. Among the most difficult of these is the issue of community standards. Because the Internet brings together people from all over the United States and all over the world, it defies identification with any particular community. Other difficulties are the criminal element of knowledge and the issue of dissemination. Persons may post and receive information on Internet bulletin boards without the knowledge of those who maintain the BBS, making it difficult to determine whether the BBS operators "knowingly disseminated" obscene materials.

In 1996, Congress passed the Communications Decency Act (CDA), which punished disseminating "indecent" material over the Internet. The Supreme Court struck down the law in Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844, 117 S.Ct. 2329, 138 L.Ed.2d 874 (1997). Although the Court recognized the "legitimacy and importance of the congressional goal of protecting children from harmful materials," it ruled that the CDA abridged freedom of speech and therefore was unconstitutional. The Court also noted that its previous decisions limiting free speech out of concern for the protection of children were inapplicable in this case, and that the CDA differed from the laws and orders upheld in previous cases in significant ways. For example, the CDA did not allow parents to consent to their children's use of restricted materials; it was not limited to commercial transactions; it failed to provide a definition of "indecent"; and its broad prohibitions were not limited to particular times of the day. Finally, the act's restrictions could not be analyzed as a form of time, place, and manner regulation because it was a content-based blanket restriction on speech.

Congress lost little time in responding to this decision. In 1998, it quickly passed the Child Online Protection Act (COPA), which would make it illegal to use the World Wide Web to communicate "for commercial purposes" any material considered to be "harmful to minors." The law also incorporated the three-part obscenity test that the Supreme Court formulated in Miller v. California. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and a group of on-line website operators challenged the constitutionality of COPA, arguing that it was over-broad. In addition, the plaintiffs contended that the use of the community standards test would give any community in the United States the ability to file civil and criminal lawsuits under COPA. This meant that the most conservative community in the country could dictate the content of the Internet. A federal appeals court in Philadelphia agreed with these arguments and the government appealed again to the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court, in Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union, 535 U.S. 564, 122 S.Ct. 1700, 152 L.Ed.2d 771 (2002), produced a decision that failed to give a clear direction. The use of community standards did not by itself make the statute overbroad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment. Apart from that conclusion, the Court could not agree, with five of the justices producing separate opinions. A majority, however, had reservations about the COPA. A number of the justices expressed concern that without a national standard it would be difficult for operators of Internet services to know when they had crossed a line and had subjected themselves to liability. The case was remanded to the lower courts for a full examination of the law on all issues. The fate of COPA is likely to be decided by the Court in a future decision.

As the popularity of the Internet continues to grow, more issues involving censorship are likely to appear. And with the advancement of high-speed Internet access, movies, videos, text, and pictures can now be downloaded with greater ease, creating even more opportunities for legal debate.

Cross-references

Art Law; Entertainment Law; Movie Rating; Schools and School Districts.

BOOKS, commerce, accounts. Merchants, traders, and other persons, who are desirous of understanding their affairs, and of explaining them when necessary, keep, 1. a day book; 2. a journal; 3. a ledger; 4. a letter book; 5. an invoice book; 6. a cash book; 7. a bill book; 8. a bank book; and 9. a cheek book. The reader is referred to these several articles. Commercial books are kept by single or by double entry.

单词	books
释义	Books book¹ B0390200 (bo͝ok)n.1. a. A set of written, printed, or blank pages fastened along one side and encased between protective covers.b. An e-book or other electronic resource structured like a book.2. a. A printed or written literary work: Did you ever finish writing that book?b. A main division of a larger printed or written work: a book of the Old Testament.3. a. A volume in which financial or business transactions are recorded.b. books Financial or business records considered as a group: checked the expenditures on the books.4. a. A libretto.b. The script of a play.5. Booka. The Bible.b. The Koran.6. a. A set of prescribed standards or rules on which decisions are based: runs the company by the book.b. Something regarded as a source of knowledge or understanding.c. The total amount of experience, knowledge, understanding, and skill that can be used in solving a problem or performing a task: We used every trick in the book to finish the project on schedule.d. Informal Factual information, especially of a private nature: What's the book on him?7. A pack of like or similar items bound together: a book of matches.8. A record of bets placed on a race.9. Games The number of card tricks needed before any tricks can have scoring value, as the first six tricks taken by the declaring side in bridge.v. booked, book·ing, books v.tr.1. a. To arrange for or purchase (tickets or lodgings, for example) in advance; reserve.b. To arrange a reservation, as for a hotel room, for (someone): Book me into the best hotel in town.c. To hire or engage: booked a band for Saturday night.2. a. To list or register in a book: booked the revenue from last month's sales.b. To list or record appointments or engagements in: A calendar that was booked solid on Tuesday.c. To record information about (a suspected offender) after arrest in preparation for arraignment, usually including a criminal history search, fingerprinting, and photographing.d. Sports To record the flagrant fouls of (a player) for possible disciplinary action, as in soccer.3. To designate a time for; schedule: Let's book a meeting for next month.4. To be hired for or engaged in: The actor has booked his next movie with that director.v.intr. To make a reservation: Book early if you want good seats.adj.1. Of or relating to knowledge learned from books rather than actual experience: has book smarts but not street smarts.2. Appearing in a company's financial records: book profits.Idioms: *bring to book* To demand an explanation from; call to account. *in (one's) book* In one's opinion: In my book they both are wrong. *like a book* Thoroughly; completely: I know my child like a book. *one for the books* A noteworthy act or occurrence. *throw the book at1. To make all possible charges against (a lawbreaker, for example).2. To reprimand or punish severely. [Middle English bok, from Old English bōc; see bhāgo- in Indo-European roots.] book′er* n.Synonyms: book, bespeak, engage, reserve These verbs mean to cause something to be set aside in advance, as for one's use or possession: will book a hotel room; made sure their selections were bespoken; engaged a box for the opera season; reserving a table at a restaurant.*Word History:* From an etymological perspective, book and beech are branches of the same tree. The Germanic root of both words is bōk-, ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning "beech tree." The Old English form of book* is bōc, from Germanic bōk-ō, "written document, book." The Old English form of beech* is bēce, from Germanic bōk-jōn, "beech tree," because the early Germanic peoples used strips of beech wood to write on. A similar semantic development occurred in Latin. The Latin word for book is liber,* whence library. Liber, however, originally meant "bark"—that is, the smooth inner bark of a tree, which the early Romans likewise used to write on. book² B0390200 (bo͝ok)intr.v. booked, book·ing, books Informal To move or travel rapidly: We booked along at a nice clip. [Perhaps shortening and alteration (influenced by book) of boogie.] Books See also authors; bible; manuscripts; printing; reading. abridgment, abridgementa shortened or condensed form of a book, article, etc.addenduma supplement or appendix added to a book or other written work.adversaria1. a commonplace book. 2. a miscellany, in published or other collected form.bibliogenesisbibliogony. — bibliogenetic, adj.bibliognosta person who possesses an encyclopedie knowledge of books and bibliography. — bibliognostic, adj.bibliogonythe making of books; book production. Also bibliogenesis.bibliography1. the science that studies the history of books, noting their physical description, publication, and editions. 2. a list of books on a particular subject or by a particular author. 3. a list of source materials used or consulted in the preparation of a work or referred to in the text. — bibliographer, n. — bibliographic, bibliographical, adj.bibliokleptomaniaan abnormal compulsion to steal books. Cf. bibliomania. — biblioklept, n.bibliolater, bibliolatrista person who is excessively fond of books. See also bible.bibliolatrythe worship of books, especially the Bible.bibliology1. the history of books; bibliography. 2. the study of the doctrines of the Bible. — bibliologist, n.bibliomancya form of divination using books, especially the Bible, in which passages are chosen at random and the future foretold from them.bibliomaniaan excessive fondness for acquiring and possessing books. — bibliomaniac, n. — bibliomaniacal, adj.bibliopegythe art of binding books. — bibliopegist, n. — bibliopegic. adj.bibliophagea bookworm (literally, ’bookeater’). — bibliophagy, n. — bibliophagous, adj.bibliophilism, bibliophilya love for books, especially for first or fine editions. — bibliophile, bibliophilist, n. — bibliophilic, adj.bibliophobea person who fears and distrusts books.bibliophobiaan abnormal dislike for books.bibliopolism, bibliopolythe selling of books, especially rare or secondhand volumes. — bibliopole, bibliopolist, n. — bibliopolic, adj.bibliotaphythe hoarding or hiding of books, often under lock and key. — bibliotaph. n. — bibliotaphic, adj.bibliothecarya librarian.bibliotherapythe therapeutic use of reading material in the treatment of nervous diseases. — bibliotherapist, n. — bibliotherapeutic, adj.breviaryCatholicism. a book containing the prayers, lessons, etc., needed by a priest for the reading of his daily office.chartulary, cartulary1. a book containing charters. 2. the official in charge of such a book.collectaneaa miscellany of passages from an author or authors, sometimes assembled for teaching purposes.colophon1. an inscription, formerly at the end of a book but now usually on the title page, with information about the book’s publication and production. 2. an ornamental device or printer’s or publisher’s trademark.cyclopedia, cyclopaediaencyclopedia. — cyclopedist, cyclopaedist, n. — cyclopedic, cyclopaedic, adj.delectusa book of passages from Greek and Latin authors, used for study.desiderataa list of books sought by a collector or library.diaskeuasisthe process of revision or editing books or other written material. — diaskeuast, n.doublurethe lining of the covers of a book, often decorated, as with marbled papers, gold tooiing at the edges, etc.emarginationthe state of being notched at the edge or the process of notching at the edge, as some leaves or the page of a book, particularly a reference work with thumbindexing.enchiridiona handbook or manual.encyclopedia, encyclopaediaa book or set of books containing detailed knowledge and information about a variety of fxelds or subfields; an exhaustive work of learning 01 knowledge. Also called cyclopedia, cyclopaedia. — encyclopedist, encyclopaedist, n. — encyclopedie, encyclopaedic, encyclopedical, encyclopaedical, adj.etymologicona book of etymologies; any treatise on the derivation of words.exordiumthe beginning or introductory part of a book or other printed work, or of a discourse.fasciclean installment of a book or journal that is published in parts.foliationthe numbering of leaves in a book, rather than pages.formularyany book of prescribed forms, as prayers, oaths, etc. See also drugs.grangerism1. the augmentation of the illustrative material in a book by prints, sketches, and engravings not found in the original edition. 2. the mutilation of books to acquire extra illustrative materials. — grangerize, v.incunabulumany of the rare, early examples of movabletype editions printed in the last part of the 15th century, as Caxton’s editions of Chaucer and Malory. — incunabula, n. pl. — incunabulist, n. — incunabular, adj.limnerArchaic. a book illustrator or one who illuminates manuscripts.marginalianotes written in the margins of a book, as by a student.miscellanea, miscellanya varied collection, particularly a collection of literary works, extracts, fragments, etc., in book form. — miscellaneous, adj.monographa book, treatise, or other written work of a scholarly nature dealing with one specific subject. Also, Rare. monography. — monographer, n. — monographic, monographical, adj.nomenclatorObsolete, a list or glossary, arranged alphabetically, of the terms or words particular to any art or science or other special field or subject. Also nomenclature. See also classification; names.pagination1. the process of numbering the pages of a book. 2. the number and arrangement of pages, as might be noted in a bookseller’s catalogue.palimpsesta piece of parchment or vellum from which earlier writing has been erased or scraped off to allow for reuse. — palimpsestic, adj.paralipomenaa supplement to a book or other work containing material previously omitted.peeragea list or directory of peers, usually with genealogies, as Burke’s Peerage.philobiblista lover of books; bibliophile.photobibliographythe use of photography as an aid to book description.polyglota book written in several languages. See also language. — polyglot, polyglottic, polyglottous, adj.proem, proemiuma preface, preamble, or brief introduction, as to a book or other work.prolegomenona preliminary rem ark or introduction, as to a speech; the foreword to a book or treatise. — prolegomenary, prolegomenous, adj.redaction.1. the preparation of a work for publication, as by editing or revising. 2. a work so treated, an edited version. — redactor, n. — redactorial, adj.rubricin the early days of printing, a capital letter, group of words, etc., printed in red or in decorative lettering; hence, a heading, title, or subtitle in a book or other printed work. — rubric, adj. — rubricator, n.scholiuma marginal note or comment, especially in an appendix, providing explanation of a Greek or Latin text. Also scholy. — scholiast, n.varioruma work containing all available versions and variants of a text to enable scholars to compare them and study the development of the work. — variorum, adj. Books See Also: READERS/READING All the juice of a book is in an unpublished manuscript, and the published book is like a dead tree —just good for cutting up and building your house with —Christina Stead Bad books are like intoxicating drinks; they furnish neither nourishment, nor medicine —Tryon Edwards The Bible among books is as a diamond among precious stones —John Stoughton A book is a friend whose face is constantly changing —Andrew Lang A book is a mirror: if an ass peers into it, you can’t expect an apostle to look out —Georg Christoph Lichtenberg A book is like a garden carried in the pocket —Arab proverb A book, like a child, needs time to be born —Heinrich Heine A book, like a grape-vine, should have good fruit among its leaves —Edward Parsons Day A book, like a landscape, is a state of consciousness varying with readers —Ernest Dimnet A book may be as great a thing as a battle —Benjamin Disraeli Books are like individuals; you know at once if they are going to create a sense within the sense … or if they will merely leave you indifferent —George Moore Books … arranged carefully according to size, like schoolchildren lined up for recess —Helen Hudson Books, like friends, should be few and well chosen —Thomas Fuller Books, like men their authors, have no more than one way of coming into the world, but there are ten thousand to go out of it and return no more —Jonathan Swift Books like proverbs receive their value from the stamp and esteem of ages through which they have passed —Sir William Temple Books … as little read as tombstones —Frank Swinnerton The [thick] book was just like a warm, thick eiderdown that she could pull over herself, snuggle into —Alice Munro A book without an index is as incomplete as an eunuch —Theodore Stanton See Also: COMPLETENESS A classic … is a successful book that has survived the reaction of the next period or generation. Then it’s safe, like a style in architecture or furniture —F. Scott Fitzgerald Dictionaries are like watches: the worst is better than none, and the best cannot be expected to go quite true —Samuel Johnson Disliking a classic like disliking a nation one visits, it’s the result of a blind spot, which goes away and leaves one embarrassed —Edward Hoagland Each new book is as a ship that bears us away from the fixity of our limitations into the movement and splendor of life’s infinite ocean —Helen Keller Every book is like a purge, at the end of it one is empty … like a dry shell on the beach, waiting for the tide to come in again —Daphne du Maurier, Ladies Home Journal, November, 1956 The harmonies of bound books are like the flowers of the field —Hilaire Belloc It is with books as with new acquaintances. At first we are highly delighted, if we find a general agreement … with closer acquaintances differences come to light; and then reasonable conduct mainly consists in not shrinking back at once —Johann Wolfgang von Goethe It is with books as with men: a very small number play a great part —Voltaire Like the fortune teller who sees a long journey in the cards or death by water, they [books] influence the future —Graham Greene Most books, like their authors, are born to die —Joshua Swartz A new book, like a young man, has a reputation to acquire —Clarence Walworth A new book … not one of a number of similar objects, but like an individual man, unmatched —Marcel Proust Novels are useful as bibles, if they teach you the secret that the best of life is conversation and the greatest success is confidence —Ralph Waldo Emerson An old book, like an old man, is bound to have a good character already established, and must expect to be looked upon with suspicion if it has not —Clarence Walworth The reading of good books is like a conversation with the finest men of past centuries —Rene Descartes A room without books is like a body without a soul —Cicero A twist to this, variously attributed to Hannah More and Henry Ward Beecher, is “A house without books is like a room without windows.” See Also: HOUSES Such books are like frowzy old broads who have been handled by a thousand men —Peter De Vries The books being compared to frowzy old broads are telephone directories in phone booths. There is no frigate like a book —Emily Dickinson Dickinson’s simile serves as both title and first line for one of her best known poems. Volumes [of books produced in America] by the dozens like doughnuts, big and soft and empty at the core —Helen Hudson Books Books the most important historical means, and one still developing, for recording semantic information, primarily a connected text of considerable length. Books are designed for repeated reproduction and for transmission in time and space. The text of a book is imprinted on sheets by means of signs (letters or other graphic symbols), which are to be apprehended visually (with the exception of books for the blind, intended to be read by touch). The modern book is a codex—a set of bound pages with a text and illustrations and with outer protective components (binding and cover). For statistical purposes a book is a printed work in the form of a codex with an established minimum number of pages (in accordance with UNESCO specifications, more than three printer’s sheets, or not less than 48 pages). Books are an extremely important means of popular, scholarly, and technical communication and play a great role as weapons in political and ideological struggle, in the dissemination of knowledge, and in upbringing and education. As a sociopolitical, artistic, and scientific work the book is partisan and has a distinct class character. Books are the product of social consciousness and, consequently, are instruments in the class struggle. In all periods books have served as powerful means of popularizing and spreading political views. Lenin wrote that “the book is an enormous force” (Lenin i kniga, 1964, p. 362). Lenin’s tenet that two cultures exist in every national culture fully applies to books. The book plays a revolutionary or reactionary role, depending on the social forces whose ideology it reflects and propagates and on who controls the equipment and means of book production —the publishing houses, printing shops, paper, and so forth. In a capitalist society books propagating reactionary ideas are used by the ruling classes as a means of political and national oppression of the broad working masses. In a socialist society books serve the interests of the people and are closely bound up with the life of the people. They are based on the principles of partiinost’ (party-mindedness), narodnost’ (conformity to people’s needs), and nauchnosf (scientific approach), of active humanism, and of proletarian internationalism. Books are the product of knizhnoe delo (“book industry”), the sum total of the branches of culture and production associated with the creation and manufacture of books, their distribution, storage, description, and study. The selection of scientific, literary, or artistic works for printed reproduction and distribution, the party and professional evaluation of these works, and their preparation for publication are functions of publishing. The reproduction of books is carried out by the printing industry. The distribution and popularization of books are the functions of the book trade. The collection, special processing, and storage of books, as well as their popularization, are within the province of libraries and library science, which also provide guidance to readers. Bibliographies inform readers about books and other published works and actively popularize them. Books and book publishing are studied in their historical and contemporary aspects by the scholarly discipline known as book science. *Manuscript books.* The emergence of books is closely linked with the creation and development of writing, whose structural characteristics (a system of signs, the order of their disposition, the traits of their outlines) to a considerable degree determined the book’s form, as did the writing material and the writing instruments. In antiquity there were two basic types of books: the roll (Egypt, Greece, Rome, the states of the ancient East) and the stack of tablets or leaves (the palm-leaf books in India and Ceylon, Roman polyptychs). In the fourth and third millennia B.C., books in the form of papyrus rolls appeared in Egypt. From the second century B.C., parchment rolls were used. The average length of a roll did not exceed 10 m, although rolls over 40 m long are known to have existed, for example, the Harris Papyrus in the British Museum. In ancient Egypt the making of books was an extremely complex and diverse activity of scribes and artists, who decorated the roll manuscripts with ornaments and pictures. A characteristic trait was the striving for a functional and stylistic connection between the hieroglyphic text and the conventionally symbolic pictures. The prototype of the modern codex book was the polyptych, consisting of several small waxed tablets fastened together, used for writing by the ancient Romans. The oldest extant parchment codex, the Codex Sinaiticus, dates from the fourth century. By comparison with the roll, the codex could contain more information and was more durable. Turning bound pages proved to be more convenient for writing and reading than unwinding and simultaneously winding a roll. The codex acquired a title page (from the Latin titulus, “inscription,” “title”) and pagination. With the codex, binding also appeared, initially made from several glued sheets of papyrus or parchment and later with wooden boards. Craftsmen of the manuscript book strove for a harmonious positioning on the page of text, illustrations, and ornamentation. Beginning in the 13th century paper became the basic writing material in Europe. The centers of book production during the Middle Ages were the scriptoria, where rudimentary division of labor was employed. The text was written by the scribe, the spaces left by him for headings and initial letters were filled in by the rubricator, and the decorations and miniatures were executed by the illuminators and miniaturists. The bindings and the frames of precious stones were made by binders and gold-smiths. During the early Middle Ages books were richly decorated with ornamentation depicting fish and birds. In England and Ireland from the seventh through the ninth century, interlace ornament predominated. Masterpieces of the bookmaking art of this period were the Book of Durrow (c. 670) and the Book of Kells (c. 800). In the Carolingian age, when bookmaking centers arose in Paris, Reims, Fulda, and Tours, a unique form of Latin script appeared—the Carolingian minuscule. After the disintegration of the Carolingian empire the monastery on the island of Reichenau (in the Bodensee) became the foremost center of book production. Beginning in the 13th century Gothic script was predominant in European books, and ornamentation became especially important. Unique beauty and a high degree of perfection in execution mark the manuscripts of the calligraphers of the East. The appearance of books in Russia was linked with the spread of the Slavic script, created in the second half of the ninth century. The earliest extant Russian dated manuscript book is the Ostromir Gospel (1056–57). There are seven dated books from the 11th century and eight from the 12th century. An outstanding survival of book art is the Mstislav Gospel (c. 1117), encased in a costly frame. In Moscow at the turn of the 15th century the Koshka Gospel and the Khitrovo Gospel were created, whose artistic decoration was executed by craftsmen associated with Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev. A large role in the history of the manuscript book of the first half of the 16th century was played by craftsmen influenced by Theodosius the Isograph, who executed ornamentation using metal engravings, for example, the Uvarov Gospel. In the mid-l6th century the state workshop created a multivolume chronicle compilation containing a large number of miniatures. A succession of styles was employed in the ornamentation of Russian manuscript books: old Byzantine, “animal,” Balkan, new Byzantine, and old style type. At first the predominant script was the ustav, replaced in the 14th century by the poluustav. *Printed books.* The first method used in the multiple reproduction of books was xylography, printing from wood engravings. The oldest printed book is considered to be a text printed from 12 wooden blocks in Korea between 704 and 751. European woodcuts, which began to appear during the 15th century, were initially pictorial broadsheets, sometimes with a text; later, “block books” with pages printed on one side, known as anopis-thographic books, appeared. Subsequently, the facing and reverse sides of the page were printed on two separate sheets, which were then pasted together (opisthographic books). A new era in the history of books began with the emergence of printing in Europe, which dates from the 1440’s and is associated with the name of J. Gutenberg (Germany). A masterpiece of early printing was his 42–line Bible; only the text was reproduced by the printing method. The first attempt at a typographic reproduction of ornamentation may be found in P. Schoeffer’s Mainz Psalter (1457), in which publication data and the printer’s mark also appeared for the first time. In 1461, A. Pfister in Bamberg printed a book with woodcut illustrations. During the 1470’s and 1480’s, E. Ratdolt (Venice, Augsburg) introduced multicolored printing in books, began to use gold in printing, and furnished books of a practical nature with drawings and diagrams. During the 15th and 16th centuries printers aimed at creating economical and beautiful type faces suitable for reading texts. The first printed books in Italy appeared in 1465, in Bohemia and Switzerland in 1468, in the Netherlands in 1469, in France in 1470, in Poland about 1473, in Hungary in 1473, in Spain and Belgium in 1474, and in England in 1477. Books printed before Jan. 1, 1501, are called incunabula, and books published during the first half of the 16th century are known as paleotypes. The first books to be printed in Cyrillic were those of S. Fiol in Kraków in 1491. Printing in Moscow began in the 1550’s. The first Russian book to be precisely dated was issued by Ivan Fedorov and Petr Mstislavets in 1654 (Acts of the Apostles). In 1574, Ivan Fedorov in L’vov printed the first books in Ukrainian (ABC Book and Acts of the Apostles). The development of the book as an organic whole was retarded and complicated by mass production. To overcome this contradiction, the most important printer-publishers of the 16th and 17th centuries—the Manutius family in Venice, the Estiennes in France, C. Plantin in Belgium, and the Elzevirs in the Netherlands—developed different types of editions and arrived at the most efficient and aesthetically perfect solutions for their books. Further development of the printed book was linked with efforts to increase the amount and improve the transmission of information and to achieve specialization by type of publication (scientific, educational, artistic, religious, reference). The 18th and early 19th centuries saw an increasing separation of the typographic and artistic aspects of bookmaking. This often had the effect of weakening the hitherto close relationship of text and illustrations. The use of ornamentation cast in type and of rules became widespread. The invention of lithography (1798) and the innovations in wood engraving (1780’s) facilitated the reproduction of the author’s drawing, and after the mid-19th century made possible a considerable increase in the publication of illustrated editions. Outstanding Russian and West European artists fostered realist tendencies in book illustrations. From the mid-19th century the pace of technical development in printing accelerated. The invention of the photomechanical method of reproducing pictures opened the way for the extensive use of black-and-white and colored illustrations. The second half of the 19th century was marked by a growing subordination of bookmaking to publishers’ commercial interests, resulting in the decline of the artistic quality of books intended for large audiences and the emergence of a special category of books designed for bibliophiles. The English writer and artist W. Morris attempted to renew the art of bookmaking by turning to handicraft methods of production. In the late 19th century he published 53 superbly made books. At the turn of the 20th century new stylistic forms emerged, reflecting the aspirations of the painting and graphic arts of the period. In contemporary capitalist countries the art of bookmaking shows high achievements in printing, particularly in scholarly and art books, although the artistic-pictorial aspect is generally less developed. Reflecting the commercial interests of the publishers, book production is divided into mass editions, with colorful covers and no illustrations, and expensive editions, in whose production major artists frequently participate. From their earliest appearance, Soviet books have sought to resolve the ideological, educational, and artistic problems that arose during the country’s cultural transformations. In accordance with the goal of making Soviet books accessible to all and instructive in character, Soviet publishers and printers have devoted their primary attention to books for the masses. In the USSR the art of book illustration has been highly developed by leading artists, notably the Moscow engravers V. A. Favorskii, A. I. Kravchenko, A. D. Goncharov, G. A. Echeistov, and M. I. Pikov and the Leningrad artists L. S. Khizhinskii, A. F. Pakhomov, G. D. Epifanov, V. V. Lebedev, V. M. Konashevich, E. I. Charushin, and Iu. A. Vasnetsov. The innovations of the constructivists during the 1920’s and the early 1930’s (L. M. Lisitskii, A. M. Rodchenko) influenced book design and promoted the use of photomontage. N. V. Kuz’min, the Kukryniksy group, D. A. Shmarinov, and E. A. Kibrik illustrated many works of classical literature. Notable contributions to the design of type fonts and books have been made by I. F. Rerberg, S. B. Telingater, and S. M. Pozharskii. Since the 1950’s, Soviet bookmaking has endeavored to integrate the various elements of the book, giving special attention to problems of organizing the book as a whole (artistic design) and to stylistic problems. In the mid-20th century, the rapid increase in printed information and the widespread use of new media of mass communications (radio, television, motion pictures) have posed new problems. The place of books within the overall system of mass communications must be more precisely defined. Book organization requires improvement, for example, through using new printed materials, publishing microform editions, improving readability, and supplementing scientific and educational books with sound recordings and stereoscopic pictures. Yet another task is to raise the quality of printing. *Structure and typology of the modern book.* The book is attached to its cover by endpapers. The upper and lower edges of the signatures are fastened by braiding with a thickened edge. Sometimes the binding is enclosed in a jacket, which protects the cover and is part of the book’s design. The title page may occupy the second page (duplicate title) or the third page of the book. Some information may be placed in the bastard title, which occupies the book’s first page. The title page is sometimes preceded by a frontispiece. For the organization of the text various methods of rubrication are used. The divisions of a book are sometimes preceded by a half title, giving the name of the individual part. The opening pages of a division are set apart by makeup or artistic embellishment. Type-face and nontype-face methods may be used to accentuate headings or parts of the text. Use of the book is facilitated by running headings—the titles of individual parts found at the top of the printed page—and by pagination. The consecutive numbering of the signatures and the use of direction lines (found on the first or sometimes third page of each section) facilitate the gathering of the sheets in preparation for binding. The book’s makeup includes the imprint, the table of contents, the foreword (or afterword), annotation, notes, commentaries, indexes, bibliographical lists within the book, appendixes, and footnotes. The table of contents and the imprint are placed in each book, whereas the other elements are primarily found in scholarly publications. The size of a book’s pages is called the publication format. Books are differentiated according to readership, purpose, and subject matter. With respect to readership, books may be intended for the general reader, for specialists, or for children. In terms of purpose, books are classified as official, scientific, popular-science, educational, literary-artistic, reference, or advertising. An important type of scholarly book is the monograph. Among educational books are textbooks, teaching manuals, methods’ materials, and the like. Characteristic reference publications include dictionaries, encyclopedias, reference works on specialized subjects, books containing instructions and rules, prospectuses, catalogs, calendars, and guidebooks. Books are classified in accordance with library and bibliographical classification systems. REFERENCES Lenin i kniga. Moscow, 1964. Piat’sot let posle Gutenberga, 1468–1968. Moscow, 1968. 400 let russkogo knigopechataniia, vols. 1–2. Moscow, 1964. Sidorov, A. A. Kniga i zhizn’. Moscow, 1972. Sidorov, A. A. Istoriia oformleniia russkoi knigi, 2nd ed. Moscow, 1964. Liublinskii, V. S. Kniga ν istorii chelovecheskogo obshchestva. Moscow, 1972. Katsprzhak, E. I. Istoriia knigi. Moscow, 1964. Nemirovskii, E. L. Nachalo slavianskogo knigopechataniia. Moscow, 1971. Nemirovskii, E. L. Vozniknovenie knigopechataniia ν Moskve: Ivan Fedorov. Moscow, 1964. Kniga ν Rossii, parts 1–2. Edited by V. Ia. Adariukov and A. A. Sidorov. Moscow, 1924–25. Nazarov, A. I. Oktiabr’ i kniga. Moscow, 1968. Cherniak, A. Ia. Istoriia tekhnicheskoi knigi, part 1. Moscow, 1969. Pakhomov, V. V. Knizhnoe iskusstvo, books 1–2. Moscow, 1961–62. Liakhov, V. N. Oformlenie sovetskoi knigi. Moscow, 1966. Liakhov, V. N. Ocherki teorii iskusstva knigi. Moscow, 1971. Kniga: Issledovaniia i materialy, collections 1–25. Moscow, 1959–72. Iskusstvo knigi (anthology), issues 1–7. Moscow, 1960–71. Aldis, H. The Printed Book. Cambridge, 1951. Barge, H. Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst. Leipzig [1940]. Dahl, S. Histoire du livre de l’antiquité à nos jours, 2nd ed. Paris, 1960. Flocon, A. L’Univers des livres. Paris [1961]. Labarre, A. Histoire du livre. Paris, 1970. McMurtrie, D. C. The Book. New York [1943]. Steinberg, S. H. Five Hundred Years of Printing. London, 1959. V. N. LIAKHOV and E. L. NEMIROVSKII MedicalSeeBook Books Related to Books: Good Books Censorship The suppression or proscription of speech or writing that is deemed obscene, indecent, or unduly controversial. The term censorship derives from the official duties of the Roman censor who, beginning in 443 b.c., conducted the census by counting, assessing, and evaluating the populace. Originally neutral in tone, the term has come to mean the suppression of ideas or images by the government or others with authority. Throughout history, societies practiced various forms of censorship in the belief that the community, as represented by the government, was responsible for molding the individual. For example, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato advocated various degrees of censorship in The Republic; the content of important texts and the dissemination of knowledge were tightly controlled in ancient Chinese society as is much information in modern China; and for centuries the Roman Catholic Church's Index Librorum Prohibitorum proscribed much literature as contrary to the church's teachings. The English-speaking world began wrestling with issues of censorship in the seventeenth century. In his Areopagitica (1644), John Milton argued in favor of the right to publish, free from government restraint. In the United States, the First Amendment to the Constitution (1787) guarantees Freedom of Speech and Freedom of the Press. When a U.S. government agency attempts to prohibit speech or writing, the party being censored frequently raises these First Amendment rights. Such cases usually involve communication that the government perceives as harmful to itself or the public. Abortion In some cases, the government can constitutionally censor the speech of those who receive federal funding. For example, the Supreme Court ruled in Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173, 111 S. Ct. 1759, 114 L. Ed. 2d 233 (1991), that, without restricting First Amendment rights, the government can ban Abortion counseling in federally funded health clinics. Prisoners' Mail If the government's interest is penological it also has broader rights to censor speech. Prisoners' outgoing mail can be censored in order to thwart escape plans, shield the recipients from obscene or menacing letters, or circumvent inaccurate or adverse reports about prison conditions. Under the Supreme Court ruling in Procunier v. Martinez, 416 U.S. 396, 94 S. Ct. 1800, 40 L. Ed. 2d 224 (1974), prison administrators can censor prisoners' personal correspondence only if it is necessary to maintain security, order, or rehabilitation efforts. Such censorship can be neither random nor excessively troublesome. Entertainment Perhaps the most visible form of censorship is that affecting the entertainment industry. Theater and film, as types of public entertainment, affect the common interest and can hence be subjected to certain types of governmental regulation. But attempts to regulate or censor often risk obstructing the free speech rights of playwrights, screenwriters, filmmakers, performers, and distributors. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that it is lawful to censor obscene entertainment to safeguard children from Pornography and to protect adults from unknowingly or involuntarily viewing indecent materials (Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629, 88 S. Ct. 1274, 20 L. Ed. 2d 195 [1968]). Although Supreme Court interpretation permits individuals to view Obscenity in the privacy of their homes (Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 89 S. Ct. 1243, 22 L. Ed. 2d 542 [1969]), theaters and movie houses are public places and therefore subject to regulation (Paris Adult Theatre I v. Slaton, 413 U.S. 49, 93 S. Ct. 2628, 37 L. Ed. 2d 446 [1973]). The difficulty with such censorship is in trying to determine what is "obscene." In miller v. california, 413 U.S. 15, 93 S. Ct. 2607, 37 L. Ed. 2d 419 (1973), the Supreme Court concluded that a work is obscene and can be regulated if it appeals to a viewer's prurient interest; portrays sexual conduct in a patently offensive way; and lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. The Court further ruled that interpretations of this definition may vary across the United States and that communities may apply their own local standards to determine obscenity. To avoid government censorship, the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) regulates itself through a voluntary rating system. The system does not have statutory authority but is used to help the industry conform with statutes designed to protect children. Recognizing a 1968 Supreme Court decision that favored limited censorship for minors (Ginsberg v. New York, 390 U.S. 629, 88 S. Ct. 1274, 20 L. Ed. 2d 195), the MPAA devised a rating system based on the viewer's age. A G rating signals that subject matter is suitable for general audiences; PG stands for Parental Guidance Suggested; PG-13 strongly advises guidance for children under age 13 because of possibly inappropriate material; R requires accompaniment by an adult for children under age 17, or 18 in some states; and NC-17 or X prohibit anyone under age 17, or 18 in some states, from entering the theater. Radio and television have also met with governmental pressure to control the content of their broadcasts. Spurred by the belief that violence on television adversely affects children's behavior and attitudes, Congress has attempted several times to encourage the media to adopt voluntary guidelines in the hope that less violence on television will lead to a less violent society. Although none of Congress's acts have been deemed outright censorship, government intrusion into broadcasting to discourage certain types of speech has not been welcomed by all. The various pieces of legislation raise questions about media self-censorship and the role of the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in regulating freedom of expression. In response to congressional pressure the National Association of Broadcasters adopted the Family Viewing Policy in 1974 to limit the first hour of prime-time programming to material suitable for families. The policy was found unconstitutional in 1976 (Writers Guild of America, West, Inc. v. F.C.C., 423 F. Supp. 1064 [C.D. Cal., 1976]). Congress addressed the content of children's television with the Children's Television Act of 1990 (47 U.S.C.A. §§ 303a–303b [Supp. III 1991]), which limits the amount of advertising on children's television and compels broadcasters to air educational programs. Failure to comply with the act could jeopardize renewal of a station's license. Critics point out that the act has not improved children's programming because of its vague standards and the FCC's disinclination to enforce it. The Television Violence Act (47 U.S.C.A. § 303c [Supp. III 1991]), proposed in 1986 by Senator Paul Simon (D-Ill.), was signed into law by President george h.w. bush in December 1990. This act, which expired in 1993, was intended to prompt the networks, cable industry, and independent stations to decrease the amount of violence shown on television. Although it did not constitute direct government regulation, the act was criticized as a governmental attempt to impose its values on society by discouraging, if not suppressing, unpopular ideas.The Telecommunications Act of 1996, 110 Stat. 56, required television manufacturers to create a chip, known as the V-chip, which allows users, presumably parents, to block out programs based on their sexual or violent content. The chip, which has been installed in television sets manufactured since 1999, operates in conjunction with a voluntary rating system implemented by TV broadcasters that rates programs for violence and sexual content. Radio broadcasts have also come under scrutiny. In FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, 438 U.S. 726, 98 S. Ct. 3026, 57 L. Ed. 2d 1073 (1978), the Supreme Court ruled that a daytime broadcast of George Carlin's "Seven Dirty Words" monologue violated the prohibition of indecency in 18 U.S.C.A. § 1464 (1948) and was therefore subject to regulation. To many, this ruling gave the FCC further authority to censor speech and dictate values. Music Just as the entertainment industry has faced regulation or censorship for allegedly violent, obscene, or indecent material, so has the recording industry. Claiming that some popular music erodes morals by encouraging violence, drug abuse, and sexual promiscuity, the Parents' Music Resource Center, founded in 1985 by Tipper Gore, the wife of the future vice president, albert gore, successfully lobbied the music industry to place warning labels on records that may feature lyrics inappropriate for children. Concerned about the rising rate of violent crime against law enforcement officers, the assistant director of public affairs for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) sent a letter in August 1989 to Priority Records to protest a rap group's lyrics. N.W.A., a Los Angeles-based rap group, recorded on its album Straight Outta Compton the song "Fuck tha Police," which violently protested police brutality. Although the letter from the FBI was a protest, not an attempt at regulation, many in the music industry interpreted it as an example of indirect censorship through intimidation. Perhaps the most famous legal proceedings to censor music involved the rap group 2 Live Crew. In early 1990, a Florida circuit judge banned all sales of the group's album As Nasty As They Wanna Be on the grounds that the lyrics of several of its songs, including "Me So Horny," violated community standards for obscenity. The group brought suit to have the ban lifted in Skyywalker Records v. Navarro, 742 F. Supp. 638 (S.D. Fla. 1990), but the judge upheld the obscenity ruling. A record store owner was arrested for continuing to sell the album and two members of 2 Live Crew were arrested on obscenity charges after a performance. The band members were acquitted of all charges in October 1990, but the debate continues between those demanding free expression in music and those seeking to censor allegedly obscene material. Art For almost as long as artists have been creating art, governments have both supported and censored artists' work. Ancient Athens, the Roman Empire, and the medieval Catholic Church financed many projects, whereas totalitarian regimes, for example, banned many works and repressed artists. The U.S. Congress was reluctant to fund art that might subsequently be construed as national art, or as government-approved art until 1960s activism encouraged it to do so. In 1965, the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities was established to foster excellence in the arts. It is composed of two divisions, the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) and the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). Among its many interests, the NEA provides stipends to deserving artists. Controversy over the role of government support of the arts arose in the late 1980s with two artists who received NEA funding. In 1988, the photographer Andres Serrano received harsh condemnation for his photograph titled Piss Christ, which depicted a plastic crucifix floating in a jar of Serrano's urine. Numerous senators sent letters of protest to the NEA, insisting that the agency cease underwriting vulgar art. A second furor arose in 1989 over the work of another photographer, Robert Mapplethorpe, who received NEA support for his work, which depicted flowers, nude children, and homosexuality and sadomasochism. Senator jesse helms (R-N.C.) argued the most vociferously against the NEA's choices and introduced legislation to ban funding of "obscene or indecent art" (1989 H.R. 2788 [codified at 20 U.S.C.A. § 953 et seq. (1989)]). The Helms Amendment, adopted in October 1989, gave the NEA great power and latitude to define obscenity and quash alternative artistic visions. To enforce the new amendment, the NEA established an "obscenity pledge," which required artists to promise they would not use government money to create works of an obscene nature. The art world strongly resisted this measure: many museum directors resigned in protest and several well-known artists returned their NEA grants. Two important cases tested the power of the NEA to censor artistic production. In Bella Lewitsky Dance Foundation v. Frohnmayer, 754 F. Supp. 774 (C.D. Cal. 1991), a dance company refused to sign the obscenity pledge and sued on the ground that the pledge was unconstitutional. A California district court agreed that the pledge violated the First Amendment right to free speech and that its vagueness denied the dance company due process under the Fifth Amendment. In New School v. Frohnmayer, No. 90-3510 (S.D.N.Y. 1990), the New School for Social Research, in New York City, turned down a grant, claiming that the obscenity pledge acted as Prior Restraint and therefore breached the school's First Amendment rights. Before the constitutionality of the prior restraint argument was decided, the NEA released the school from its obligation to sign the pledge. The NEA abolished the obscenity pledge in November 1990, but in its place instituted a "decency clause" (1990 Amendments, Pub. L. No. 101-512, § 103(b), 104 Stat. 1963 [codified at 20 U.S.C.A. § 954(d)(1990)]), which required award recipients to ensure that their works met certain standards of decency. Failure to comply with this demand could mean suspension of grant payments. Again the art world protested. In Finley v. NEA, 795 F. Supp. 1457 (C.D. Cal. 1992), artists known as the NEA Four—Karen Finley, John Fleck, Holly Hughes, and Tim Miller—sued the NEA over the decency clause. A California district court agreed with the artists. The Finley court held that the decency clause, like the obscenity pledge, was unconstitutional because its vagueness denied the artists the due process guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment and because its too-general restriction suppressed speech. Books U.S. parents send their children to public schools to receive an education and to learn the fundamental values on which their democratic society is based. Conflict ensues when parents believe that certain schoolbooks contain material that is objectionable on political, moral, or religious grounds and should be banned in order to protect their children from exposure to allegedly harmful ideas. In some instances school boards have responded by physically removing books from school library shelves. In general, advocates of book banning maintain that censorship is warranted to redress social ills, whereas critics believe that freedom of speech is more important and useful to society than imposing values through censorship. Book banning as a way to remedy social problems was first tested by the Supreme Court in Board of Education v. Pico, 457 U.S. 853, 102 S. Ct. 2799, 73 L. Ed. 2d 435 (1982). In Pico, parents objected to nine books in the high school library, most of which were subsequently removed by the school board. The nine books were Slaughterhouse Five, by Kurt Vonnegut Jr.; Naked Ape, by Desmond Morris; Down These Mean Streets, by Piri Thomas; Best Short Stories of Negro Writers, edited by Langston Hughes; Laughing Boy, by Oliver LaFarge; Black Boy, by Richard Wright; A Hero Ain't Nothin' But a Sandwich, by Alice Childress; Soul on Ice, by eldridge cleaver; and Go Ask Alice, by an anonymous author. Pico debated the authority of local school boards to censor material in the interest of protecting students. The case reached the Supreme Court because lower courts were unable to devise standards for testing the constitutionality of book removal. The Supreme Court ruled that it is unconstitutional for public school boards to abridge students' First Amendment rights by banning books. Although school boards have the power to determine which books should sit on library shelves, they do not have the authority to censor. Books published by commercial presses for sale to the general public sometimes meet with harsh condemnation and subsequent action that could be tantamount to censorship. In November 1990, Simon and Schuster canceled its contract with author Bret E. Ellis to publish his novel American Psycho, citing the work's graphic violence and sexual brutality. The National Writers Union decried the cancellation as contrary to free speech and artistic expression and as censorship. The publishing house defended its editorial judgment by claiming it did not want to put its imprint on a book of questionable taste and value. Vintage Books, a division of Random House, soon acquired the novel, and published it in March 1991. Students' Speech Students' free speech rights sometimes clash with schools' interest in maintaining control of public education. Students' First Amendment liberties were affirmed by the landmark tinker v. des moines independent community school district, 393 U.S. 503, 89 S. Ct. 733, 21 L. Ed. 2d 731 (1969), which ruled that public school students could not be penalized for wearing symbols, such as black armbands, to protest the Vietnam War. Two subsequent cases dealing with issues of censorship in school newspapers pointed to a more restrictive judicial view of students' right to free expression. In Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260, 108 S. Ct. 562, 98 L. Ed. 2d 592 (1988), the Supreme Court ruled in favor of a Hazelwood, Missouri, school principal who removed several articles from a student newspaper. The articles dealt with teen pregnancy and a student's feelings about her parents' Divorce. The court in Hazelwood held that a school newspaper is not a public forum, and thus granted school officials the right to determine what type of student speech is appropriate and to regulate such speech. Three years later, the ruling in Planned Parenthood v. Clark County School District, 941 F.2d 817 (9th Cir. 1991), was based on Hazelwood. In Planned Parenthood, a public high school newspaper solicited advertisements from local businesses, including Planned Parenthood. The principal refused to allow Planned Parenthood to place an advertisement in school publications and Planned Parenthood sued the school district. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld a district court decision that a public high school publication is not a public forum and that the school could therefore accept or reject advertisements. Both Hazelwood and Planned Parenthood concluded that because public high schools are nonpublic forums, school districts can apply a limited degree of censorship. Hundreds of public universities in the United States have speech codes to regulate students' choice of words. Speech can be constitutionally curtailed in some circumstances. For example, public Colleges and Universities can forbid threats of violence, prohibit obscene language and conduct (although it is extremely difficult to define or prove obscenity), and punish students for using defamatory speech against each other, all without violating the First Amendment. Numerous cases have successfully contested free speech limitations on campus, suggesting that a majority of these codes are unconstitutional. In Doe v. University of Michigan, 721 F. Supp. 852 (E.D. Mich. 1989), a biopsychology student maintained that the university's speech code prevented him from freely discussing controversial ideas about biologically based differences between the sexes and races. A district court ruled that the university's code proscribed too great a range of speech and therefore was an unconstitutional infringement on the plaintiff's First Amendment rights. The court also held that the overbroad nature of the code denied his due process rights. A University of Wisconsin student was accused of violating the university's speech codes by yelling rude comments at a woman. In U.W.M. Post, Inc. v. Board of Regents, 774 F. Supp. 1163 (E.D. Wis. 1991), the university's speech code was also struck down as overbroad. Two years later school officials punished fraternity brothers at George Mason University for dressing in drag and staging an "ugly woman contest." In Iota X Chapter v. George Mason University, 993 F.2d 386 (1993), the Fourth Circuit found that the university had violated the First Amendment because it did not sanction the fraternity merely for its conduct, but rather for the message conveyed by the "ugly woman contest," which ran counter to the views the university sought to foster. Internet Computer-mediated communication grows explosively every year and in some ways outpaces and obviates current legal principles. The prevailing concept of law applies to real-world events and transactions, and, as those in the legal field are realizing, may unravel when exercised in cyberspace. As more and more people transmit widely divergent messages on the electronic highway, issues of free speech and censorship become increasingly complicated and regulations difficult to enforce. The first case of criminal prosecution of electronic communication involved the distribution of pornography over an electronic bulletin board system (BBS). In United States v. Thomas, No. CR-94-20019-G (W.D. Tenn. 1994), Robert Thomas and Carleen Thomas were found guilty of disseminating obscene materials by interstate telephone lines and computer. From their home in California, the Thomases ran an adults-only private BBS from which subscribers could download computer graphics files and order sexually explicit photo-graphs and videotapes while on-line. To gather evidence against the couple, a Memphis postal inspector, under an assumed name, downloaded to his computer many of the pornographic electronic files and ordered tapes. The Thomases were charged with, among other things, transporting obscene materials across state lines. The couple attempted to transfer their case to the Northern District of California, so that their materials would be measured against that community's standards of obscenity, rather than the obscenity standards of the Western District of Tennessee. The district judge denied their request, noting that in obscenity prosecutions the trial can be held either in the district from which the material was sent or where it was received. The "virtual" nature of cyberspace poses a number of problems for courts and legislatures on the issue of obscenity. Among the most difficult of these is the issue of community standards. Because the Internet brings together people from all over the United States and all over the world, it defies identification with any particular community. Other difficulties are the criminal element of knowledge and the issue of dissemination. Persons may post and receive information on Internet bulletin boards without the knowledge of those who maintain the BBS, making it difficult to determine whether the BBS operators "knowingly disseminated" obscene materials. In 1996, Congress passed the Communications Decency Act (CDA), which punished disseminating "indecent" material over the Internet. The Supreme Court struck down the law in Reno v. ACLU, 521 U.S. 844, 117 S.Ct. 2329, 138 L.Ed.2d 874 (1997). Although the Court recognized the "legitimacy and importance of the congressional goal of protecting children from harmful materials," it ruled that the CDA abridged freedom of speech and therefore was unconstitutional. The Court also noted that its previous decisions limiting free speech out of concern for the protection of children were inapplicable in this case, and that the CDA differed from the laws and orders upheld in previous cases in significant ways. For example, the CDA did not allow parents to consent to their children's use of restricted materials; it was not limited to commercial transactions; it failed to provide a definition of "indecent"; and its broad prohibitions were not limited to particular times of the day. Finally, the act's restrictions could not be analyzed as a form of time, place, and manner regulation because it was a content-based blanket restriction on speech. Congress lost little time in responding to this decision. In 1998, it quickly passed the Child Online Protection Act (COPA), which would make it illegal to use the World Wide Web to communicate "for commercial purposes" any material considered to be "harmful to minors." The law also incorporated the three-part obscenity test that the Supreme Court formulated in Miller v. California. The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and a group of on-line website operators challenged the constitutionality of COPA, arguing that it was over-broad. In addition, the plaintiffs contended that the use of the community standards test would give any community in the United States the ability to file civil and criminal lawsuits under COPA. This meant that the most conservative community in the country could dictate the content of the Internet. A federal appeals court in Philadelphia agreed with these arguments and the government appealed again to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court, in Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union, 535 U.S. 564, 122 S.Ct. 1700, 152 L.Ed.2d 771 (2002), produced a decision that failed to give a clear direction. The use of community standards did not by itself make the statute overbroad and unconstitutional under the First Amendment. Apart from that conclusion, the Court could not agree, with five of the justices producing separate opinions. A majority, however, had reservations about the COPA. A number of the justices expressed concern that without a national standard it would be difficult for operators of Internet services to know when they had crossed a line and had subjected themselves to liability. The case was remanded to the lower courts for a full examination of the law on all issues. The fate of COPA is likely to be decided by the Court in a future decision. As the popularity of the Internet continues to grow, more issues involving censorship are likely to appear. And with the advancement of high-speed Internet access, movies, videos, text, and pictures can now be downloaded with greater ease, creating even more opportunities for legal debate. Further readings Bussian, James R. 1995. "Anatomy of the Campus Speech Code: An Examination of Prevailing Regulations." South Texas Law Review 36 (February). Butler, Deborah A. 1992. "Planned Parenthood of Southern Nevada v. Clark County School District: The Evolution of the Public Forum Doctrine." Wayne Law Review 38 (summer). Byassee, William S. 1995. "Jurisdiction of Cyberspace: Applying Real World Precedent to the Virtual Community." Wake Forest Law Review 30 (spring). "The Call to Campus Conduct Policies: Censorship or Constitutionally Permissible Limitations on Speech." 1990. Minnesota Law Review 75 (October). Couvares, Francis G., and Charles Musser. 1996. Movie Censorship and American Culture. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Foerstel, Herbert N. 2002. Banned in the U.S.A.: A Reference Guide to Book Censorship in Schools and Public Libraries. Rev. ed. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Kolbert, Kathryn, and Zak Mettger. 2002. Justice Talking: Censoring the Web: Leading Advocates Debate Today's Most Controversial Issues. New York: New Press. Madved, Lory. 1992. "Protecting the Freedom of Speech Rights of Students: The Special Status of the High School Library." Capital Univ. Law Review 21 (fall). Schlegel, Julia W. 1993. "The Television Violence Act of 1990: A New Program for Government Censorship?" Federal Communications Law Journal 46 (December). Strossen, Nadine. 1996. Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women's Rights. New York: Anchor Books. Walker, Michael W. 1993. "Artistic Freedom v. Censorship: The Aftermath of the NEA's New Funding Restrictions." Washington Univ. Law Quarterly 71 (fall). Cross-references Art Law; Entertainment Law; Movie Rating; Schools and School Districts. BOOKS, commerce, accounts. Merchants, traders, and other persons, who are desirous of understanding their affairs, and of explaining them when necessary, keep, 1. a day book; 2. a journal; 3. a ledger; 4. a letter book; 5. an invoice book; 6. a cash book; 7. a bill book; 8. a bank book; and 9. a cheek book. The reader is referred to these several articles. Commercial books are kept by single or by double entry. FinancialSeebook
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