| 单词 | cartel | ||||||
| 释义 | cartelcar·telC0131200 (kär-tĕl′)cartel(kɑːˈtɛl)car•tel(kɑrˈtɛl)n. cartelCartelpolitical or economic combination between parties or business organizations; hence, the parties themselves. See also combine, syndicate.cartel
cartelnouncartelcartel(kärtĕl`), national or international organization of manufacturers or traders allied by agreement to fix prices, limit supply, divide markets, or to fix quotas for sales, manufacture, or division of profits among the member firms. In that it often has international scope the cartel is broader than the trusttrust,in law, arrangement whereby property legally owned by one person is administered for the benefit of another. Three parties are ordinarily needed for the relation to arise: the settlor, who bequeaths or deeds the property for another's benefit; the trustee, in whose hands ..... Click the link for more information. , and in that it carries on manufacture it differs from the speculative cornercorner, securing of all or nearly all the supply of any commodity or stock so that its buyers are forced to pay exorbitant prices. Corners may be planned deliberately or may be brought about unintentionally, as through a fight for controlling interest in a corporation's stock. ..... Click the link for more information. or ring. The existence of cartels is in opposition to classic theories of economic competition and the free market, and they are forbidden by law in many nations. In Germany, however, by the outset of World War II, nearly all industry was controlled by cartels closely supervised by the government. Opponents of cartels have alleged that they have driven competing firms out of existence, reduced volume of trade, raised prices to consumers, and protected inefficient members from competition. Cartels were blamed for having benefited German aggression by furnishing markets, profits, and technical data to Germany before World War II. Supporters of cartels claim that they protect the weaker participating firms, do away to an extent with limitations on trade resulting from high tariffs, distribute risks and profits equitably, stabilize markets, reduce costs, and hence protect consumers. The U.S. government legalized export associations in 1918 and has itself participated in agreements regulating production and international trade in foodstuffs, rubber, and other commodities. Because they imply the agreement and supervision of several governments, cartels in international trade are usually felt to be less harmful than those that tend to create monopolies in the home market for participants. Formal international agreements, involving governments as well as private firms, still control price, output, and distribution in some industries, notably in diamonds and in oil. Although not referred to as cartels, these agreements have the same general effect on world trade. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting CountriesOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), multinational organization (est. 1960, formally constituted 1961) that coordinates petroleum policies and economic aid among oil-producing nations. ..... Click the link for more information. (OPEC) provides an outstanding example of the complex synergy of economics, politics, and international affairs that is involved in the dealings of large cartels. The term cartel is also used to describe the large criminal gangs in the illegal drug trade, especially those in Latin America, that dominate in certain regions or control certain aspects of the trade. See also tarifftariff, tax on imported and, more rarely, exported goods. It is also called a customs duty. Tariffs may be distinguished from other taxes in that their predominant purpose is not financial but economic—not to increase a nation's revenue but to protect domestic industries ..... Click the link for more information. . BibliographySee E. Kefauver, In a Few Hands (1965); H. Kronstein, The Law of International Cartels (1973); J. Hobson, Cartels, Trusts, and the Economic Power of Bankers, Financiers, and Money-Moguls (1985). Cartela form of monopolistic agreement among companies, usually belonging to one economic sector, for the purpose of extracting monopolistic profits through quotas regulating the volume of production and of products marketed for all its basic participants. One of the forms of cartel agreements is the syndicate. The development of cartel agreements has also involved partial exchange of commercial information, standardization of accounting, and the organizing of patent pools for joint purchase and use of patents. In the cartel, as in any form of monopolistic practice, capitalist efficiency and technical progress are intertwined with elements of stagnation and decay. In the present-day scientific and technical revolution, however, the cartel is the most flexible form of monopoly concentration, and this fact has determined certain characteristics of its development. Cartels arose at the end of the 19th century as a result of the concentration of production and the centralization of capital. In the first half of the 20th century they became particularly widespread in Germany. The American antitrust laws prohibited the monopolization of particular spheres of business activity, above all the formation of cartels. This legislation accelerated the process of mergers and absorption and the formation of holding companies and other developed forms of monopolistic concentration. In those sectors lacking an appropriate level of production concentration for the appearance of monoplies, cartels continued to exist in disguised form. In the mid-1950’s and early 1960’s domestic cartels developed in the Western European countries. During these years laws were passed making the registration of cartels compulsory. The purpose of such legislation was to foster monoplization on the basis of more rapid concentration of production. Although state registration does impose a number of limitations on the preservation of old cartels and the formation of new ones, this form of monopolization became widespread in Western Europe. In Great Britain, where registration of cartels was made compulsory in 1956, 2, 240 applications had been submitted by the end of 1958. In the Netherlands the new law went into effect in 1958, and 1, 133 cartels were registered by the beginning of 1960. In 1960 there were 925 cartels in Sweden; in 1958, Denmark had 925. In West Germany and Japan, where more rigid restrictions have been instituted, the number of officially registered cartels is much smaller. Along with the domestic cartels many international ones have arisen in the 20th century, especially in the world capitalist markets for raw materials and intermediate goods. Under present conditions, with a high level of concentrationof production and capital, most of the developed capitalist coun-tries are witnessing the rise of various forms of agreementsamong large companies, based on such factors as “mutual under-standing,” knowledge of the market, mutual observance of unstated quotas, and hidden agreements on price changes. These agreements are more effective than the old cartels in ensuring a monopoly in the market; unlike the old cartels, which regulated the marketing practices of numerous medium-size and small companies, the new arrangements guarantee a monopoly for a few large sellers. Cartels are now being supplanted by combinations known as conglomerates, which are built on a production and scientific-technical basis and incidentally perform cartel functions. IU. B. KOCHEVRIN cartelcartelCartelA combination of producers of any product joined together to control its production, sale, and price, so as to obtain a Monopoly and restrict competition in any particular industry or commodity. Cartels exist primarily in Europe, being illegal in the United States under antitrust laws. Also, an association by agreement of companies or sections of companies having common interests, designed to prevent extreme or Unfair Competition and allocate markets, and to promote the interchange of knowledge resulting from scientific and technical research, exchange of patent rights, and standardization of products. In war, an agreement between two hostile powers for the delivery of prisoners or deserters, or authorizing certain nonhostile intercourse between each other that would otherwise be prevented by the state of war, for example, agreements between enemies for intercommunication by post, telegraph, telephone, or railway. Although illegal in the United States, foreign cartels influence prices within the United States on imported and smuggled goods that they control. The United States has sued the De Beers diamond cartel several times, and works to stop the flow of illegal narcotics, whose production and distribution are largely controlled by drug cartels. carteln. 1) an arrangement among supposedly independent corporations or national monopolies in the same industrial or resource development field organized to control distribution, to set prices, to reduce competition, and sometimes to share technical expertise. Often the participants are multi-national corporations which operate across numerous borders and have little or no loyalty to any home country, and great loyalty to profits. The most prominent cartel is OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), which represents all of the oil producing countries in the Middle East, North Africa and Venezuela. Many cartels operate behind a veil of secrecy, particularly since under American anti-trust laws (the Sherman and Clayton Acts) they are illegal. 2) criminal syndicates like the international drug cartel headquartered in Colombia. (See: antitrust laws) cartelsee COMPETITION, COMPETITION POLICY.CARTEL,war. An agreement between two belligerent powers for the delivery of prisoners or deserters, and also a written challenge to a duel. cartelCartelCartelcartelcartela form of COLLUSION between a group of suppliers aimed at suppressing competition between themselves, wholly or in part. Cartels can take a number of forms. For example, suppliers may set up a sole selling agency which buys up their individual output at an agreed price and arranges for the marketing of these products on a coordinated basis. Another form is where suppliers operate an agreement (see RESTRICTIVE TRADE AGREEMENT) which sets uniform selling prices for their products, thereby suppressing price competition, but with suppliers then competing for market share through PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION strategies. A more comprehensive version of a cartel is the application not only of common selling prices and joint marketing, but also of restrictions on production involving the assignment of specific output quotas to individual suppliers, and the making of coordinated capacity adjustments, thereby either removing over-capacity or extending capacity on a coordinated basis.Cartels are usually established either to exploit the joint marketing power of suppliers to extract MONOPOLY profits, or as a means of preventing cutthroat competition from forcing firms to operate at a loss, often resorted to in times of depressed demand (a so-called ‘crisis cartel’). A number of factors are crucial to the successful operation of a cartel, in particular the participation of all significant suppliers of the product and their full compliance with the policies of the cartel. Nonparticipation of some key suppliers and ‘cheating’ by cartel members, together with the ability of buyers to switch to substitute products, may well serve to undermine a cartel's ability to control prices. In many countries, most notably the US, UK and EUROPEAN UNION, cartels concerned with price fixing, market sharing and restrictions on production and capacity are prohibited by law. See COMPETITION POLICY, ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC).  Quotas of QA and QB are given to firms A and B respectively where a horizontal line drawn from the intersection of MR and XMC (the line of aggregate marginal costs) intersects MCA and MCB. Profit contributed by each firm is computed by multiplying the number of units produced by the difference between industry price and the firm's average cost at that level of output. The aggregate profit is then divided among the member firms in some agreed manner, not necessarily, it is to be noted, in the same proportion as actually contributed by each of the individual firms. Disputes over the sharing of aggregate profit frequently lead to the break-up of cartels. cartela form of COLLUSION between a group of suppliers aimed at suppressing competition between themselves, wholly or in part. Cartels can take a number of forms. For example, suppliers may set up a sole selling agency that buys up their individual output at an agreed price and arranges for the marketing of these products on a coordinated basis. Another variant is when suppliers operate an agreement (see RESTRICTIVE TRADE AGREEMENT) that sets uniform selling prices for their products, thereby suppressing price competition but with suppliers then competing for market share through PRODUCT DIFFERENTIATION strategies. A more comprehensive version of a cartel is the application not only of common selling prices and joint marketing but also restrictions on production, involving the assignment of specific output quotas to individual suppliers, and coordinated capacity adjustments, either removing over-capacity or extending capacity on a coordinated basis.Cartels are usually established with the purpose of either exploiting the joint market power of suppliers to extract MONOPOLY profits or as a means of preventing cut-throat competition from forcing firms to operate at a loss, often resorted to in times of depressed demand (a so-called ‘crisis cartel’). In the former case, a central administration agency could determine the price and output of the industry, and the output quotas of each of the separate member firms, in such a way as to restrict total industry output and maximize the joint profits of the group. Price and output will thus tend to approximate those of a profit-maximizing monopolist. See Fig. 21 . A number of factors are crucial to the successful operation of a cartel, in particular the participation of all significant suppliers of the product and their full compliance with the policies of the cartel. Non-participation of some key suppliers and ‘cheating’ by cartel members, together with the ability of buyers to switch to substitute products, may well serve to undermine a cartel's ability to control prices. In many countries, including the UK, the USA and the European Union, cartels concerned with price fixing, market sharing and restrictions on production and capacity are prohibited by law. See COMPETITION POLICY (UK), COMPETITION POLICY (EU), ORGANIZATION OF PETROLEUM-EXPORTING COUNTRIES ( OPEC). CARTEL
cartel
Synonyms for cartel
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cartel - a consortium of independent organizations formed to limit competition by controlling the production and distribution of a product or service; "they set up the trust in the hope of gaining a monopoly"