class

C0389300 (klăs)n.1. A set, collection, group, or configuration containing members regarded as having certain attributes or traits in common; a kind or category.2. A division based on quality, rank, or grade, as:a. A grade of mail: a package sent third class.b. A quality of accommodation on public transport: tourist class.3. a. A social stratum whose members share certain economic, social, or cultural characteristics: the lower-income classes.b. Social rank or caste, especially high rank.c. Informal Elegance of style, taste, and manner: an actor with class.4. a. A group of students who are taught together, usually at a regularly scheduled time and in the same subject.b. The period during which such a group meets: had to stay after class.c. The subject material taught to or studied by such a group: found the math class challenging. d. A group of students or alumni who have the same year of graduation.5. Biology A taxonomic category ranking below a phylum or division and above an order.6. Statistics An interval in a frequency distribution.7. Linguistics A group of words belonging to the same grammatical category that share a particular set of morphological properties, such as a set of inflections.8. Mathematics A collection of sets whose members share a specified property.tr.v. classed, class·ing, class·es To arrange, group, or rate according to qualities or characteristics; assign to a class; classify.

[French classe, from Latin classis, class of citizens; see kelə- in Indo-European roots.]

class

(klɑːs) n1. a collection or division of people or things sharing a common characteristic, attribute, quality, or property2. (Sociology) a group of persons sharing a similar social position and certain economic, political, and cultural characteristics3. (Philosophy) (in Marxist theory) a group of persons sharing the same relationship to the means of production4. (Sociology) a. the pattern of divisions that exist within a society on the basis of rank, economic status, etcb. (as modifier): the class struggle; class distinctions. 5. (Education) a. a group of pupils or students who are taught and study togetherb. a meeting of a group of students for tuition6. (Education) chiefly US a group of students who graduated in a specified year: the class of '53. 7. (Education) (in combination and as modifier) Brit a grade of attainment in a university honours degree: second-class honours. 8. one of several standards of accommodation in public transport. See also first class, second class, third class9. a. informal excellence or elegance, esp in dress, design, or behaviour: that girl's got class. b. (as modifier): a class act. 10. (Horse Racing) a. outstanding speed and stamina in a racehorseb. (as modifier): the class horse in the race. 11. (Biology) biology any of the taxonomic groups into which a phylum is divided and which contains one or more orders. Amphibia, Reptilia, and Mammalia are three classes of phylum Chordata12. (Mathematics) maths logic a. another name for set²³b. proper class a class which cannot itself be a member of other classes13. (Logic) maths logic a. another name for set²³b. proper class a class which cannot itself be a member of other classes14. in a class of its own in a class by oneself unequalled; unparalleledvbto have or assign a place within a group, grade, or class[C17: from Latin classis class, rank, fleet; related to Latin calāre to summon] ˈclassable adj ˈclasser n

class

(klæs, klɑs)

n. 1. a number of persons or things regarded as belonging together because of common attributes, qualities, or traits; kind; sort. 2. a. a group of students meeting regularly to study a subject under the guidance of a teacher. b. the period in which they meet. c. a meeting of such a group. d. a classroom. 3. a group of students ranked together or graduated in the same year: the class of '92. 4. a social stratum sharing basic economic, political, or cultural characteristics, and having the same social position: the blue-collar class. 5. the system of dividing society; caste. 6. social rank, esp. high rank. 7. the members of a given group in society, regarded as a single entity: the academic class. 8. any division of persons or things according to rank or grade: a hotel of the highest class. 9. Informal. elegance, grace, or dignity, as in dress and behavior. 10. any of several grades of accommodations available on ships, airplanes, and the like. 11. the usual major subdivision of a phylum or division in the classification of organisms, usu. consisting of several orders. 12. form class. 13. Math. a set; a collection. adj. 14. Informal. of high quality, rank, or grade: a class act; a class performer. v.t. 15. to place or arrange in a class; classify: to class doctors with lawyers. v.i. 16. to take or have a place in a particular class: those who class as believers. Idioms: in a class by itself or oneself, having no peer; unequaled. [1590–1600; earlier classis, pl. classes < Latin: class, division, fleet, army] class′a•ble, adj. class′er, n. usage: See collective noun.

class.

1. classic. 2. classical. 3. classification. 4. classified.

class

(klăs) A group of organisms ranking above an order and below a phylum or division. See Table at taxonomy.

Class

a rank or position of society; a division into units in a school or college; in the United States, those students who enter college the same year; a number of persons with similar qualities or skills grouped together; a range of items or things graded according to quality.

class

form">form grade">grade year">year1. 'class'

A class is a group of pupils or students who are taught together.

If classes were smaller, children would learn more.I had forty students in my class.2. 'form'

In some British schools and in some American private schools, form is used instead of 'class'. Form is used especially with a number to refer to a particular class or age group.

I teach the fifth form.She's in Form 5.3. 'year'

In British English, a year is a set of students of a similar age, who started school at around the same time.

'Which year are you in?' 'I'm in the fifth year, and Krish is in the third year.'4. 'grade'

A grade in an American school is similar to a form or a year in a British school.

A boy in the second grade won first prize.

class

Past participle: classed
Gerund: classing

Imperative
class
class

Present
I class
you class
he/she/it classes
we class
you class
they class

Preterite
I classed
you classed
he/she/it classed
we classed
you classed
they classed

Present Continuous
I am classing
you are classing
he/she/it is classing
we are classing
you are classing
they are classing

Present Perfect
I have classed
you have classed
he/she/it has classed
we have classed
you have classed
they have classed

Past Continuous
I was classing
you were classing
he/she/it was classing
we were classing
you were classing
they were classing

Past Perfect
I had classed
you had classed
he/she/it had classed
we had classed
you had classed
they had classed

Future
I will class
you will class
he/she/it will class
we will class
you will class
they will class

Future Perfect
I will have classed
you will have classed
he/she/it will have classed
we will have classed
you will have classed
they will have classed

Future Continuous
I will be classing
you will be classing
he/she/it will be classing
we will be classing
you will be classing
they will be classing

Present Perfect Continuous
I have been classing
you have been classing
he/she/it has been classing
we have been classing
you have been classing
they have been classing

Future Perfect Continuous
I will have been classing
you will have been classing
he/she/it will have been classing
we will have been classing
you will have been classing
they will have been classing

Past Perfect Continuous
I had been classing
you had been classing
he/she/it had been classing
we had been classing
you had been classing
they had been classing

Conditional
I would class
you would class
he/she/it would class
we would class
you would class
they would class

Past Conditional
I would have classed
you would have classed
he/she/it would have classed
we would have classed
you would have classed
they would have classed

class

1. Karl Marx defined two classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Sociologists have since defined class to include such factors as power and education.2. Any of several strata in a society, usually based on relative wealth, profession, or hereditary rank.3. A group of organisms that is a subdivision of a phylum, e.g. mammals.

Thesaurus

Noun	1.	class - a collection of things sharing a common attribute; "there are two classes of detergents"category, familygrammatical category, syntactic category - (grammar) a category of words having the same grammatical propertiessubstitution class, paradigm - the class of all items that can be substituted into the same position (or slot) in a grammatical sentence (are in paradigmatic relation with one another)aggregation, collection, accumulation, assemblage - several things grouped together or considered as a wholebrass family - (music) the family of brass instrumentsviolin family - (music) the family of bowed stringed instrumentswoodwind family - (music) the family of woodwind instrumentsstamp - a type or class; "more men of his stamp are needed"sex - either of the two categories (male or female) into which most organisms are divided; "the war between the sexes"declension - a class of nouns or pronouns or adjectives in Indo-European languages having the same (or very similar) inflectional forms; "the first declension in Latin"conjugation - a class of verbs having the same inflectional formsdenomination - a class of one kind of unit in a system of numbers or measures or weights or money; "he flashed a fistful of bills of large denominations"histocompatibility complex - a family of fifty or more genes on the sixth human chromosome that code for proteins on the surfaces of cells and that play a role in the immune responsesuperphylum - (biology) a taxonomic group ranking between a phylum and below a class or subclass
	2.	class - a body of students who are taught together; "early morning classes are always sleepy"grade, course, formassemblage, gathering - a group of persons together in one placemaster class - a class (especially in music) given to talented students by an expertdiscussion section, section - a small class of students who are part of a larger course but are taught separately; "a graduate student taught sections for the professor's lecture course"
	3.	class - people having the same social, economic, or educational status; "the working class"; "an emerging professional class"social class, socio-economic class, stratumpeople - (plural) any group of human beings (men or women or children) collectively; "old people"; "there were at least 200 people in the audience"world, domain - people in general; especially a distinctive group of people with some shared interest; "the Western world"society - an extended social group having a distinctive cultural and economic organizationage class - people in the same age rangeagriculture - the class of people engaged in growing foodsodality, brotherhood, fraternity - people engaged in a particular occupation; "the medical fraternity"estate of the realm, the three estates, estate - a major social class or order of persons regarded collectively as part of the body politic of the country (especially in the United Kingdom) and formerly possessing distinct political rightslabor, labour, proletariat, working class - a social class comprising those who do manual labor or work for wages; "there is a shortage of skilled labor in this field"lower class, underclass - the social class lowest in the social hierarchybourgeoisie, middle class - the social class between the lower and upper classesbooboisie - class consisting of all those who are considered boobscommonality, commonalty, commons - a class composed of persons lacking clerical or noble rankpeasantry - the class of peasantsdemimonde - a class of woman not considered respectable because of indiscreet or promiscuous behaviorunderworld - the criminal classyeomanry - class of small freeholders who cultivated their own landcaste - a social class separated from others by distinctions of hereditary rank or profession or wealthcaste - (Hinduism) a hereditary social class among Hindus; stratified according to ritual purityclass structure - the organization of classes within a societyupper class, upper crust - the class occupying the highest position in the social hierarchyninja - a class of 14th century Japanese who were trained in martial arts and were hired for espionage and assassinationsfiring line - the most advanced and responsible group in an activity; "the firing line is where the action is"immigrant class - recent immigrants who are lumped together as a class by their low socioeconomic status in spite of different cultural backgroundscenter - politically moderate persons; centristsold school - a class of people favoring traditional ideasmarket - the customers for a particular product or service; "before they publish any book they try to determine the size of the market for it"craft, trade - people who perform a particular kind of skilled work; "he represented the craft of brewers"; "as they say in the trade"fair sex, womanhood, woman - women as a class; "it's an insult to American womanhood"; "woman is the glory of creation"; "the fair sex gathered on the veranda"
	4.	class - education imparted in a series of lessons or meetings; "he took a course in basket weaving"; "flirting is not unknown in college classes"course, course of instruction, course of studydidactics, education, educational activity, instruction, pedagogy, teaching - the activities of educating or instructing; activities that impart knowledge or skill; "he received no formal education"; "our instruction was carefully programmed"; "good classroom teaching is seldom rewarded"coursework - work assigned to and done by a student during a course of study; usually it is evaluated as part of the student's grade in the courseadult education - a course (via lectures or correspondence) for adults who are not otherwise engaged in formal studyart class - a class in which you learn to draw or paintchildbirth-preparation class - a course that teaches pregnant women to use breathing and concentration and exercise techniques to use during laborlesson - a unit of instruction; "he took driving lessons"correspondence course - a course offered (by mail) by a correspondence schoolcourse of lectures - a series of lectures dealing with a subjectdirected study - a course of study that is supervised and controlled by a specialist in the subject; "he registered for directed study"; "he got credit for directed study"; "he did directed study"elective, elective course - a course that the student can select from among alternativesextension course - a course offered as part of an extension servicehome study - a course of study carried out at home rather than in a classroomindustrial arts - a course in the methods of using tools and machinery as taught in secondary schools and technical schoolsorientation course, orientation - a course introducing a new situation or environmentpropaedeutic, propaedeutics - a course that provides an introduction to an art or science (or to more advanced study generally)refresher course, refresher - a course that reviews and updates a topic for those who have not kept abreast of developmentsrequired course - a course that all students are required to takeseminar - a course offered for a small group of advanced studentsshop class, shop - a course of instruction in a trade (as carpentry or electricity); "I built a birdhouse in shop"workshop - a brief intensive course for a small group; emphasizes problem solvinglecturing, lecture - teaching by giving a discourse on some subject (typically to a class)class period, course session, recitation - a regularly scheduled session as part of a course of study
	5.	class - a league ranked by quality; "he played baseball in class D for two years"; "Princeton is in the NCAA Division 1-AA"divisionleague, conference - an association of sports teams that organizes matches for its members
	6.	class - a body of students who graduate together; "the class of '97"; "she was in my year at Hoehandle High"yearassemblage, gathering - a group of persons together in one placegraduating class - the body of students who graduate together this yearsenior class - final grade or class in high school or collegejunior class - penultimate class in high school or collegesophomore class - the second class in a four-year college or high schoolfreshman class - the first class in college or high school
	7.	class - (biology) a taxonomic group containing one or more ordersclass Schizomycetes, Schizomycetes - a former classificationclass Cyanobacteria, class Cyanophyceae, Cyanophyceae - photosynthetic bacteria found in fresh and salt water, having chlorophyll a and phycobilins; once thought to be algae: blue-green algaeclass Sarcodina, Sarcodina - characterized by the formation of pseudopods for locomotion and taking food: Actinopoda; RhizopodaActinopoda, subclass Actinopoda - heliozoans; radiolariansRhizopoda, subclass Rhizopoda - creeping protozoans: amoebas and foraminifersCiliata, Ciliophora, class Ciliata, class Ciliophora - class of protozoa having cilia or hairlike appendages on part or all of the surface during some part of the life cycleInfusoria, subclass Infusoria - in some recent classifications, coextensive with the Ciliata: minute organisms found in decomposing infusions of organic matterChrysophyceae, class Chrysophyceae, class Heterokontae, Heterokontae - all the yellow-green algae having flagella of unequal lengthclass Xanthophyceae, Xanthophyceae - yellow-green algaeBacillariophyceae, class Bacillariophyceae, class Diatomophyceae, Diatomophyceae - marine and freshwater eukaryotic algae: diatomsclass Phaeophyceae, Phaeophyceae - brown algae; mostly marine and littoral eukaryotic algaeclass Cyclosporeae, Cyclosporeae - in more recent classifications superseded by the order Fucalesclass Euglenophyceae, Euglenophyceae - coextensive with the division EuglenophytaChlorophyceae, class Chlorophyceae - algae distinguished chiefly by having flagella and a clear green color, their chlorophyll being masked little if at all by other pigmentsclass Ulvophyceae, Ulvophyceae - alternative name for the class Chlorophyceae in some classificationsCharophyceae, class Charophyceae - in some classifications: contains only the order Charalesclass Rhodophyceae, Rhodophyceae - coextensive with the Rhodophyta: red algaeclass Flagellata, class Mastigophora, Flagellata, Mastigophora - protozoa having flagellasubclass Zoomastigina, Zoomastigina - in some classifications considered a phylum of the kingdom Protista; holozoic or saprozoic flagellatesPhytomastigina, subclass Phytomastigina - plantlike flagellates containing chlorophyll; often considered unicellular algaeclass Cryptophyceae, Cryptophyceae - motile usually brownish-green protozoa-like algaeclass Sporozoa, Sporozoa - strictly parasitic protozoans that are usually immobile; includes plasmodia and coccidia and piroplasms and malaria parasitessubclass Telosporidia, Telosporidia - parasitic sporozoans that form spores containing one or more infective sporozoitesAcnidosporidia, subclass Acnidosporidia - a subclass of SporozoaCnidosporidia, subclass Cnidosporidia - single-host parasites of lower vertebrates and invertebratesAscidiaceae, class Ascidiaceae - sometimes classified as an order: sea squirtsclass Thaliacea, Thaliacea - small class of free-swimming tunicates; sometimes classified as an orderclass Larvacea, Larvacea - small free-swimming tunicates; sometimes classified as an orderAgnatha, superclass Agnatha - superclass of eel-shaped chordates lacking jaws and pelvic fins: lampreys; hagfishes; some extinct formsGnathostomata, superclass Gnathostomata - comprising all vertebrates with upper and lower jawsclass Placodermi, Placodermi - extinct group of bony-plated fishes with primitive jawsChondrichthyes, class Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishesHolocephali, subclass Holocephali - chimaeras and extinct formsElasmobranchii, Selachii, subclass Elasmobranchii, subclass Selachii - sharks; rays; dogfishes; skatesAves, class Aves - (ornithology) the class of birdsArchaeornithes, subclass Archaeornithes - primitive reptile-like fossil birds of the Jurassic or early Cretaceousamphibia, class Amphibia - the class of vertebrates that live on land but breed in water; frogs; toads; newts; salamanders; caecilians
	8.	class - elegance in dress or behavior; "she has a lot of class"elegance - a refined quality of gracefulness and good taste; "she conveys an aura of elegance and gentility"colloquialism - a colloquial expression; characteristic of spoken or written communication that seeks to imitate informal speech
Verb	1.	class - arrange or order by classes or categories; "How would you classify these pottery shards--are they prehistoric?"classify, sort out, assort, sort, separateunitise, unitize - separate or classify into units; "The hospital was unitized for efficiency"catalogue, catalog - make an itemized list or catalog of; classify; "He is cataloguing his photographic negatives"isolate - separate (experiences) from the emotions relating to themrefer - think of, regard, or classify under a subsuming principle or with a general group or in relation to another; "This plant can be referred to a known species"reclassify - classify anew, change the previous classification; "The zoologists had to reclassify the mollusks after they found new species"size - sort according to sizedichotomise, dichotomize - divide into two opposing groups or kindsstereotype, pigeonhole, stamp - treat or classify according to a mental stereotype; "I was stereotyped as a lazy Southern European"group - arrange into a group or groups; "Can you group these shapes together?"categorise, categorize - place into or assign to a category; "Children learn early on to categorize"grade - determine the grade of or assign a grade tonumber, count - put into a group; "The academy counts several Nobel Prize winners among its members"

class

noun1. form, grade, study group, band, stream Reducing the size of classes should be a priority.2. lesson, period, seminar, tutorial They put me into a remedial maths class.3. group, grouping, set, order, league, division, rank, caste, status, sphere the relationship between different social classes4. type, set, sort, kind, collection, species, grade, category, stamp, genre, classification, denomination, genus The navy is developing a new class of nuclear-powered submarine.5. style, polish, dash, chic, elegance, sophistication, refinement, panache, élan, savoir-faire, stylishness, bon ton (French) This woman exudes class, style and sophistication.verb1. classify, group, rate, rank, brand, label, grade, designate, categorize, codify I would class my garden as being medium in size.adjective1. excellent, expert, good, great, able, skilled, masterly, outstanding, superb, superior, accomplished, first-class, competent, world-class, tasty (Brit. informal), skilful, adept, first-rate, superlative, proficient, top-notch (informal), adroit, dexterous, A1 or A-one (informal) We do not have a single class player in our team.Quotations
"The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles" [Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels The Communist Manifesto]
"There are but two families in the world as my grandmother used to say, the Haves and the Have-nots" [Miguel de Cervantes Don Quixote]
"The rich man in his castle,"
"The poor man at his gate,"
"God made them, high or lowly,"
"And ordered their estate" [Cecil Frances Alexander All Things Bright and Beautiful]

class

noun1. A subdivision of a larger group:category, classification, order, set.2. A division of persons or things by quality, rank, or grade:bracket, grade, league, order, rank, tier.3. Degree of excellence:caliber, grade, quality.4. Informal. High style in quality, manner, or dress:quality, refinement.verb1. To distribute into groups according to kinds:assort, categorize, classify, group, pigeonhole, separate, sort (out).2. To assign to a class or classes:categorize, classify, distribute, grade, group, pigeonhole, place, range, rank, rate.

Translations

年级把...归入某等级班级等级类别

class

(klaːs) – plural ˈclasses – noun1. a group of people or things that are alike in some way. The dog won first prize in its class in the dog show.类别2. (the system according to which people belong to) one of a number of economic/social groups. the upper class; the middle class; the working class; (also adjective) the class system.阶级3. a grade or rank (of merit). musicians of a high class.等级4. a number of students or scholars taught together. John and I are in the same class.班级5. a school lesson or college lecture etc. a French class.课6. (American) a course or series of lectures, often leading to an examination. （美）课程 verb to regard as being of a certain type. He classes all women as stupid.把...归入某等级ˈclassmate noun a pupil in the same school class. 同学ˈclass-room noun a room in a school where a class is taught. 教室

class

→ 年级zhCN

A first class round trip to ... (US)
A first class return to ... (UK) → 一张去...的头等舱往返票
I would like to travel first class → 我要头等舱的
A standard class cabin → 一张普通舱的
A first class cabin → 一张头等舱的

class

class,

in taxonomy: see classificationclassification,
in biology, the systematic categorization of organisms into a coherent scheme. The original purpose of biological classification, or systematics, was to organize the vast number of known plants and animals into categories that could be named, remembered, and
..... Click the link for more information. .

class

the hierarchical distinctions that exist between individuals or groups (e.g. occupational groups) within a society. In this general sense class is an alternative general term to SOCIAL STRATIFICATION. The term ‘social class’ is also widely used as a general synonym for ‘class’.
any particular position within a social stratification system or class system, e.g. ‘middle class’, ‘working class’, etc.
(social classes) the descriptive classificatory categories used by the Registrar General in the collection and analysis of CENSUS data; in 1961, for example, the Registrar General's division of the population into five ‘social classes’.
(occupational class) descriptive classification of the total population into broad ‘occupational classes’ or ‘socioeconomic status groups’, e.g. ‘manual and non-manual’ classes, as well as more elaborated classifications (see OCCUPATIONAL SCALES).
the particular form of‘open’, rather than ‘closed’, stratification of class system found within modern industrial societies, in which individual and collective SOCIAL MOBILITY is relatively commonplace (compare CASTE, ESTATE).
(MARXISM) the economically determined and inherently conflictual divisions of society based on ownership and non-ownership of property, e.g. lord and serf in feudal society (see FEUDALISM AND FEUDAL SOCIETY), BOURGEOISIE and PROLETARIAT in capitalist societies, which characterize all large-scale societies and which are held ultimately to determine the destiny of each type of society. Marx also identifies a multiplicity of lesser classes and groupings which influence the outcome of political and social conflicts.
(WEBER, 1922) differences between categories or groups of persons in their ‘typical probabilities’ of ‘procuring goods’, ‘gaining positions in life’ and ‘finding inner satisfaction’ – LIFE CHANCES. Thus, for Weber, ‘class’ means ‘all persons in the same class situation’, what ever the basis of this and whatever its implications may be for the longer-term destiny of societies (see also CLASS, STATUS AND PARTY). Weber identified a number of overlapping possible bases of class situation, based on ownership and non-ownership of property and also including reference to different kinds of property and the different kinds of income that this yields. In particular, he identifies:

property classes;
commercial classes, somewhat misleadingly so-called, since these include individuals able to safeguard their position through political or organization activity, e.g. professionals or others monopolizing qualifications, as well as entrepreneurs possessing other bases of monopoly;
social classes, the ‘totality’ of such class situations, defined in terms of situations within which ‘individual and generational mobility is easy and typically occurs’. The main ‘social classes’ identified by Weber in this sense are: (i) the working class, (ii) the petty bourgeoisie, (iii) the ‘propertyless’ intelligentsia and specialists, (iv) classes privileged by property and education.

Class situations, and the social classes these give rise to, may be ‘positively privileged’ or ‘negatively privileged’, with various ‘middle classes’ in between. Since mobility among, and the instability of, class positions is considerable, for Weber ‘social class’ is highly variable, and only sometimes are these the bases of class consciousness or collective action.

In the UK, the first dictionary use of‘class’ occurred in the 17th century, in T. Blount's Glossographia. Apart from military and school usage, he noted that the term described a ‘distribution of people according to their several Degrees’. The term came into general use in a similar way; as one which described differences of birth, occupation, wealth, ability, property, etc.

An overall, but no absolute, distinction can be drawn between those conceptions of class’ which set out to be mainly ‘descriptive’ (e.g. senses 3 and 4) and those which are more ‘analytical’ (e.g. senses 6 and 7 ).

Descriptive classificatory approaches: for more on the main descriptive approaches see SOCIAL STRATIFICATION, OCCUPATIONAL SCALES.

Analytical conceptions of class: Marx. Of the analytical approaches to class, the most influential uses in sociology undoubtedly stem from MARX, although he acknowledged that the term had originated earlier, in particular in the work of Enlightenment social theorists and French socialists.

In Marx's own work the term has a number of different applications, but the essential aspects of Marx's general model of social class are clear:

Every society has to produce a surplus to feed, house and clothe dependent children, the sick and the elderly Class differences begin when one group of people claim resources that are not consumed for immediate survival as their private property;
Classes therefore are defined in terms of ownership (or non-ownership) of productive property which makes the taking of the surplus possible. At different times in human history different forms of property (e.g. slaves, water, land, capital) have been crucial in shaping social relationships, but all class systems are characterized by two major classes. The most important class relationship as far as Marx was concerned was that found in CAPITALISM, between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;
The historical importance of classes, for Marx, is that they are intrinsically exploitative: one class, because it takes the surplus produced by another class, exploits and oppresses that class, and therefore conflict is an inevitable product of class relationships. The conflicts associated with class antagonisms are the most important factor in social change: ultimately it is class conflicts, associated with underlying social and economic CONTRADICTIONS, which transform societies;
Marx distinguishes between the ‘objective’ aspects of class, as set out in (b) above, and the 'S ubjective’ aspects, i.e. the fact of membership of a class is not necessarily accompanied by an awareness of membership or a feeling of political identity with the interests of a class. It is only when members of a class realize their common interests and act together to gain them that one can fully talk about a social class.

It should be noted that the above is a theoretical model and, as such, should not be taken as simply descriptive of any historical situation but as indicating the most important structure and processes for understanding social relations and for directing empirical work. In his own empirical work Marx introduced a number of factors into his understanding of social class. In The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852), for example, he discusses the French peasantry of the mid-19th century and he comes close to a formal definition of class which includes variables such as a shared culture and a national political organization.

Major problems arising out of Marx's work have inspired most of the subsequent sociological work on class:

the fact that Marx's account of classes and the role of class in pre-capitalist societies was relatively limited leads to questions as to whether class has the centrality of importance in the generation of change in these societies, e.g. see CLASS-DIVIDED SOCIETY;
the existence and growth of important groups other than the proletariat and the bourgeoisie;
divisions within classes which have often proved as significant. politically, as divisions between classes (e.g. see CONTRADICTORY CLASS LOCATIONS);
the important effect of factors other than social class on people's lives, GENDER and race in particular;
the fact that CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS, in practice, has never shown evidence of a simple correspondence with Marx's view of objective class situation and, historically, for subordinate classes, has normally been much at variance with ‘objective’ conditions as defined by Marx.

Analytical conceptions of class: Weber. The most influential alternative theory of class is found in Max WEBER's work. Unlike Marx, Weber emphasized other factors which promoted inequality In particular he considered status or honour and prestige as a distinct variable. He also emphasized the link between class and opportunity, arguing that a class is a category or group of people who share similar ‘life chances’. With Marx, he saw ownership and non-ownership as a basic criterion, but Weber stressed divisions within classes (partly based on social STATUS) and empirical changes in class boundaries to a much greater extent than Marx. Examples are Weber's distinction between ownership and commercial classes, and also the way that different skill levels divided the working class in terms of life chances. Here Weber is emphasizing the importance of ‘markets’ rather than simply ownership or non-ownership of property as the basis of inequality, i.e. level of skill and demand for skills determining differences in rewards. Weber also differs from Marx in seeing BUREAUCRACY, as well as class, as a fundamental nexus of power in modern societies.

Weber's stress on a variety of factors influencing opportunities and rewards (see also CLASS, STATUS AND PARTY) has made his approach to the analysis of class and social stratification very influential in sociological theory. In British sociology, for example, LOCKWOOD (1958), and later GOLDTHORPE and Lockwood et al. (1968 and 1969), emphasized the importance of taking account of'S tatus’ as well as ‘market situation’ and ‘work situation’ (see also MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION, BLACK-COATED WORKER, AFFLUENT WORKER). GIDDENS (1981) has taken the emphasis on the market situation of individuals as important in qualifying Marx's view of class and power. Earlier critics of Marx's work also emphasized Weberian themes, notably theorists of MANAGERIAL REVOLUTION, STABLE DEMOCRACY, END-OF-IDEOLOGY THESIS (see also DAHRENDORF).

Analytical conceptions of class: modern approaches: Most recent approaches have tended to take either Marx or Weber as a starting point. There have been numerous attempts to adapt or refute elements of the classical approaches. Efforts to repair deficiencies in Marx's work, for example, as seen in studies by Poulantzas (1973), Carchedi (1977) and Wright (1978 and 1985), have been widely discussed. A common preoccupation of all these theorists is the problem of CLASS BOUNDARIES, of accounting for the position of the ‘middle classes’ (see INTERMEDIATE CLASSES AND INTERMEDIATE STRATA) within the Marxist theory of class. They all accept the deficiencies of the orthodox Marxist view of such groups as professionals, managers and white-collar workers, but they differ in their attempted solutions to the problem posed by the continued existence and role of this group, which the classical Marxian theory assumed in the long run would simply be assimilated into one or other of the two main classes in capitalism, or disappear.

Poulantzas follows ALTHUSSER's conception of the MODE OF PRODUCTION to argue that there are three relatively autonomous aspects of class relations: economic (PRODUCTIVE versus UNPRODUCTIVE LABOUR), political (supervision versus nonsupervision) and ideological (mental versus manual labour); and, hence, the definition of social classes cannot be purely economic. The direct production of commodities (the economic role) is still seen as the main criterion which defines the proletariat, but the situation is complicated by further relations of power. Any worker, productive or not, who occupies a subordinate position in any of the three spheres should be seen as a member of a distinct class: the ‘new petty bourgeoisie’. Carchedi proposes a variation on this approach. He distinguishes between ownership and functional aspects of the capitalist labour relation. He argues that, as capitalism developed, production became more and more a collective process and, similarly, the function of the capitalist in controlling and organizing the labour force became separated from ownership with the growth of managerial hierarchies. The NEW MIDDLE CLASS exercises the function of capital (control and surveillance) without being part of the class which owns capital. Similarly, Wright (1978) distinguishes between ownership and control, arguing that people who do not own the means of production but have important powers as managers or semiautonomous professionals were in CONTRADICTORY CLASS LOCATIONS. In a later critique (1985), Wright re-emphasized ideas of property and exploitation as central to an understanding of class relations. Each of these approaches attempts to overcome the problems which the ‘new middle classes’ pose for Marxian accounts of class by treating power and control of the LABOUR PROCESS as in some way independently definitive of class relations. These ‘new’ approaches, therefore, despite their location within the Marxian tradition and different conceptual frameworks, bear, at some points, a striking resemblance to aspects of Weber's approach, the difference being, however, that they see their new approach as rehabilitating the Marxian view. The ultimate basis of class, and the fundamental dynamics of society, remain ‘objective’ economic class interests.

Many other writers have preferred to look more directly to Weber rather than to Marx to develop a more satisfactory theory of class. Among the most influential of these, along with Lockwood and Goldthorpe, has been Parkin (1971; 1974; 1979). Parkin draws on Weber's discussion of SOCIAL CLOSURE, the idea that groups try to monopolize resources and opportunities for their own benefit, and to deny resources and opportunities to others. The key point here is the idea of exclusion of nonmembers. In different societies, criteria of eligibility for membership of dominant classes differ: religion, ethnicity, gender, for example, are bases for exclusion in different societies. Birth into a particular group is a common criterion, so kinship and descent are crucial, and, in this type of rigid system, privileged groups can maximize closure to their own benefit very successfully Closure in modern societies is not based upon descent, but distinct strategies of exclusion are nevertheless employed.

It should be noted that much empirical work on ‘class’ and social mobility operates with ‘occupational definitions rather than with ones based on ‘property’ (see SOCIAL STRATIFICATION). Sociological approaches to class have also been much criticized recently for their ‘gender blindness’, that is, for being models of inequality relating to males only, and treating women's class positions as dependent on those of their male partners (see GENDER STRATIFICATION, MEDIATED CLASS LOCATIONS).

In Britain recently some theorists have seemed to propose an end to class and to the saliency of class analysis (e.g. Pahl, 1989). However, stripped of rhetoric, such claims represent less a call for a revaluation of the centrality of class (e.g. compare LIFESTYLE analysis) than a preference for particular versions of class analysis.

Class

the grouping of farm animals in classes established by judging the animals in terms of a set of features.

The rules for assigning animals to a particular class are determined by the directions for the valuation of various species developed by the Ministry of Agriculture of the USSR. The indexes of ratable features for first class (liveweight, exterior, productivity) are the basic ones and correspond to the requirements for the registration of the animals in the State Herdbook. More valuable animals are classed as elite and elite record; less valuable animals are assigned to second class, third class, and fourth class. Animals in breeding stock that fall outside these classes are culled from the herd.

The class is an index of the breeding value and economic worth of livestock; according to the class, prices are established and the animals are set aside either for breeding or for use.

Class

in biology, one of the higher taxonomic categories of animals and plants. A class embraces related orders of animals or plants. The class Mammalia comprises many orders, including the orders Rodentia, Insectivora, and Carnivora. In turn, classes with members that are similar in their general structure and have common ancestors are grouped in a phylum. For example, the phylum Chordata comprises the classes Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Mammalia, and others. The classes Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae constitute the phylum Angiospermae. The concept of class was introduced into taxonomy by the French botanist J. de Tournefort and was subsequently adopted by C. Linnaeus in his Systema naturae (1735).

Class

(in logic), a concept expressing an aggregate (set) of objects satisfying some condition or criterion (a distinction is sometimes made between the concepts “class” and “set”; this is connected with special problems in set theory); for these objects, it is said that they are elements of the (given) class (the relation of belonging to a class is usually denoted by the symbol ∊; the notation a ∊ A is read “a is an element of the class Ā”). It is assumed that for every property (or concept of a property) it is possible to find the class of objects having that property; for example, the class of all even numbers corresponds to the property of being an even number.

The class corresponding to a certain property may consist of any finite number of objects (finite classes are often given by an enumeration of their objects—by a list of their names); it may be infinite (for example, the aforementioned class of all even numbers); or it may be empty (that is, it does not contain any elements at all; the empty class is usually denoted by ʌ or Ø). A class consisting of only one element is called unitary or singular (Aristotle did not introduce singular or empty sets into the construction of his system of syllogisms). In contrast to the empty class is the universal class (denoted by V), specifying the range of the objects under study and composed of all objects under consideration in the object domain. Classes are usually depicted geometrically by figures bounded by simple closed curves (for example, circles in the plane).

We now consider operations upon classes and relations between them. There are several operations upon classes. The intersection of classes A and B is the class (usually denoted by A ∩ B) consisting of all those, and only those, elements contained in both class A and class B; the union of classes A and B is the class A ∪ B consisting of all those, and only those, elements contained in at least one of the classes A or B; the complement of a class A is the class Ā consisting of all those, and only those, objects of the universal class that do not belong to the class A. Relations between (two arbitrary) classes include identity (coincidence), inclusion (one set is part of [a subclass of] another), partial coincidence (when the classes have at least one common element), and exclusion (when they have no common elements). The properties of operations upon classes and relations between classes are studied in the logic of classes.

REFERENCES

Hubert, D., and W. Ackerman. Osnovy teoreticheskoi logiki. Moscow, 1947. (Translated from German.)
Tarski, A. Vvedenie v Logiku i metodologiiu deduktivnykh nauk. Moscow, 1948. (Translated from English.)
Ianovskaia, S. A. “Logika klassov.” In Filosofskaia entsiklopediia, vol. 3. Moscow, 1964.
Kuzichev, A. S. Diagrammy Venna. Moscow, 1968.
Mendelson, E. Vvedenie v matematicheskuiu logiku. Moscow, 1971. (Translated from English.)

A. S. KUZICHEV

What does it mean when you dream about being in class?

A dream of a school group in which one is a participant or the teacher may symbolize learning life’s lessons or being the authority in matters of life. In certain esoteric traditions, dreaming of being in a classroom is interpreted as meaning that the soul attends classes on the “inner planes” during sleep. Such a dream may also relate to one’s social, political, or economic status, or even to one’s uniqueness (e.g., “in a class of her own”). Divisions, often prejudicial, of race, color, or creed may also be indicated by such a dream (e.g., class consciousness, most significantly as practiced in India). (See also School, Seminar).

class

[klas] (computer science) In object-oriented programming, a description of the structure and operations of an object. A new class is defined by stating how it differs from an existing class. The new (more specific) class is said to inherit from the original (general) class and is referred to as a subclass of the original class. The original class is referred to as the superclass of the new class. (mathematics) A set that consists of all the sets having a specified property. The class of a plane curve is the largest number of tangents that can be drawn to the curve from any point in the plane that is not on the curve. (statistics) A collection of adjacent values of a random variable. (systematics) A taxonomic category ranking above the order and below the phylum or division.

class

As applied to concrete: a characterization according to some quality (such as compressive strength) or usage.

class

1. (in Marxist theory) a group of persons sharing the same relationship to the means of production 2. a. a group of pupils or students who are taught and study together b. a meeting of a group of students for tuition 3. Chiefly US a group of students who graduated in a specified year 4. Brit a grade of attainment in a university honours degree 5. a. outstanding speed and stamina in a racehorse b. (as modifier): the class horse in the race 6. Biology any of the taxonomic groups into which a phylum is divided and which contains one or more orders. Amphibia, Reptilia, and Mammalia are three classes of phylum Chordata 7. Maths Logica. another name for setb. proper class a class which cannot itself be a member of other classes

class

(programming)The prototype for an object in anobject-oriented language; analogous to a derived type in aprocedural language. A class may also be considered to be aset of objects which share a common structure and behaviour.The structure of a class is determined by the class variables which represent the state of an object of thatclass and the behaviour is given by a set of methodsassociated with the class.

Classes are related in a class hierarchy. One class may bea specialisation (a "subclass") of another (one of its"superclasses") or it may be composed of other classes or itmay use other classes in a client-server relationship. Aclass may be an abstract class or a concrete class.

See also signature.

class

(programming)See type class.

class

(networking)One of three types of Internet addressesdistinguished by their most significant bits.

class

(language)A language developed by the Andrew Project.It was one of the first attempts to add object-orientedfeatures to C.

class

(1) In object technology, a user-defined data type that defines a collection of objects that share the same characteristics. An object, or class member, is one instance of the class. Concrete classes are designed to be instantiated. Abstract classes are designed to pass on characteristics through inheritance. See instantiate.

(2) In networking, a categorization of a packet based on attributes such as protocol, port and source and destination addresses.

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REFERENCES

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Synonyms for class

noun form

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noun lesson

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noun group

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noun type

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noun style

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verb classify

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adj excellent

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Synonyms for class

noun a subdivision of a larger group

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noun a division of persons or things by quality, rank, or grade

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noun degree of excellence

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noun high style in quality, manner, or dress

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verb to distribute into groups according to kinds

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verb to assign to a class or classes

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Synonyms for class

noun a collection of things sharing a common attribute