| 单词 | segregation | |||||||||
| 释义 | segregationseg·re·ga·tionS0218600 (sĕg′rĭ-gā′shən)segregation(ˌsɛɡrɪˈɡeɪʃən)seg•re•ga•tion(ˌsɛg rɪˈgeɪ ʃən)n.
segregationsegregationnounsegregate(ˈsegrigeit) verbSegregationsegregation:see apartheidapartheid[Afrik.,=apartness], system of racial segregation peculiar to the Republic of South Africa, the legal basis of which was largely repealed in 1991–92. History ..... Click the link for more information. ; integrationintegration, in U.S. history, the goal of an organized movement to break down the barriers of discrimination and segregation separating African Americans from the rest of American society. ..... Click the link for more information. . segregationthe spatial separation of a RACE, CLASS OR ETHNIC GROUP by discriminatory means. Racial segregation can be enforced by law, as in the southern US until the 1950s, or in the system of APARTHEID in South Africa. Such segregation can take the form of separate facilities (schools, beaches, transport, etc.) or the establishment of racially homogeneous territories (as in the ‘Bantustan’ policy in South Africa pre-1991). In many countries, residential or educational segregation exists that does not have the force of law but results from economic and social DISCRIMINATION. See also GHETTO.Segregation(or liquation), in metallurgy, heterogeneity in the chemical composition of alloys that occurs upon crystallization. The term has a special meaning when used with reference to steel, as first discovered by the Russian metallurgists N. V. Kalakutskii and A. S. Lavrov in 1866. Segregation occurs because alloys, unlike pure metals, crystallize within a range of temperatures rather than at a certain fixed temperature. The composition of crystals formed during the early solidification stage may differ considerably from that of the final batches of crystallizing mother liquor. The wider the temperature range of crystallization of an alloy, the greater the development of segregation. In addition, the alloy components that have the strongest effect on the range of crystallization temperatures (for example, sulfur, oxygen, phosphorus, and carbon in the case of steel) exhibit the greatest tendency to undergo segregation. Segregation usually produces an adverse effect on the quality of metal, since it leads to irregularity of its properties. A distinction is made between dendritic segregation, which occurs in microscopic volumes of an alloy that are approximately equal to grain sizes, and zonal segregation, which is observed throughout the ingot. In dendritic segregation, the axes of dendritic crystals differ in chemical composition from the interaxial spaces. This type of segregation can be largely eliminated by prolonged annealing of the metal (homogenization), through diffusion of impurities. Zonal segregation is characterized by the existence in the ingot of several zones with differing chemical composition, which are referred to as positive or negative segregation zones, depending on the type of deviation from the average alloy composition. Axial and extra-axial types of segregation are also distinguished. To reduce zonal liquation, ingot dimensions are limited and special metallurgical processes, such as continuous casting or electroslag or vacuum remelting in a water-cooled crystallizing tank, are used. REFERENCESGolikov, I. N. Dendritnaia likvatsiia v stali. Moscow, 1958.Shteinberg, S. S. Metallovedenie. Sverdlovsk, 1961. Winegard, W. Vvedenie ν fiziku kristallizatsii metallov. Moscow, 1967. (Translated from English.) A. IA. STOMAKHIN Segregationin nonferrous metallurgy, the combined process of roasting an oxide ore and subsequent concentration. The aim of segregation is the conversion of valuable metals in difficult-to-concentrate ores into metallic granules 20–40 microns in size. The metals are then removed in the concentrate by flotation methods or magnetic separation. Segregation roasting consists in heating the ore with small amounts of a chloride salt, for example, NaCl or CaCl2, and a reducing agent in the presence of moisture. Hydrogen chloride (HC1) is formed in the roasting process and chlorinates the valuable metals. Volatile chlorides form and are reduced to the metallic state by hydrogen over the solid reducing agent with the regeneration of HC1. The metallic granules increase in size with repetitions of the cycle. The process may be used to extract metals that form volatile chlorides, such as Cu, Ni, Co, Pb, Sn, Sb, Bi, Ti, Au, and Ag. The process of segregation of copper oxide ores, which are difficult to concentrate, has acquired the name TORCO, an acronym for “treatment of refractory copper ores.” The TORCO process is used on a commercial scale in plants at Rhokana, Zambia, with a daily capacity of 500 tons of ore and at Akjoujt, Mauritania, with a daily capacity of 900 tons. The roasting is carried out in two steps. The ground ore, together with an additive of coal smalls, is first heated in a fluidized-bed furnace to a temperature up to 800°-820°C. The hot material is then transferred to the segregation reactor, where coal and rock salt are added. The duration of the reaction of the components in the reactor is approximately 10 min. The hot calcine from the reactor is then washed in a conduit by a stream of water, and sodium sulfide is added for the final stage—flotation. An extraction efficiency of up to 95 percent is possible in segregating copper ore containing 2 percent copper into a concentrate containing 60 percent. For nickel oxide ores, which cannot be concentrated by the usual methods, the roasting should be carried out at a temperature higher than that used in roasting copper ores. The consumption of reagents in roasting and flotation is greater, and the ferronickel concentrate has a lower nickel content than the copper content in copper concentrate. In addition to nickel, some of the iron present enters the concentrate. REFERENCESWright, J. K., “The Segregation Process.” Minerals Science and Engineering, 1973, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 119–34. (V1NIT1 abstract Ekspress-informatsiia tsvetnoi metallurgii, 1973, no. 31.)Pevzner, G. R. “Obogashchenie rud.” Biul. in-ta Mekhanobr, 1974, no. 1, pp. 39–45. “Izvlechenie nikelia iz zhelezistykh okislennykh nikelevykh rud metodom segregatsii.” Tsvetnye metally, 1975, no. I, pp. 8–11. I. D. REZNIK Segregationin mining, the vertical distribution according to size of grains of a material within some layer. When a stack of material slides, the large pieces primarily accumulate below. In this case, the lower layers are filled with large pieces. In another case, under the action of vibration fine grains appear to be sifted to the lower part of the layer. The principle of segregation is used in the concentration of minerals, for example, in separating mineral mixtures on a concentration table. Segregationin biology, the development of local differences in the properties of ooplasm during the period of growth and maturation in an oocyte and in a fertilized egg. Segregation is the basis for the subsequent differentiation of an embryo; in the course of the cleavage of an egg portions of the ooplasm with unlike properties enter different blastomeres. The interaction of the blastomeres with cleaved nuclei having identical potencies results in the differential activation of a genome. Segregation occurs at different times in different animals and is manifested in varying degrees. It is most distinctly observed in animals with a mosaic type of development, although it also occurs in animals with a regulative type of development. Examples of segregation include the formation of polar plasmas in mollusks and the concentration of RNA in the future dorsal hemisphere of a mammalian egg. REFERENCESWilson, E. Kletka i ee rol’ v ravitii i nasledstvennosti, vol. 2. Moscow-Leningrad, 1940. (Translated from English.)Raven, C. Oogenez. Moscow, 1964. (Translated from English.) Bodemer, C. Sovremennaia embriologiia. Moscow, 1971. (Translated from English.) A. S. GINZBURG Segregationin bourgeois states, the forcibly maintained separation of different racial groups in the population. Segregation is always accompanied by discrimination against a national group, even when the principle of racial equality has been formally established, as in the USA. There are two forms of segregation. Institutional segregation is introduced in all spheres of social life, including schools, universities, hospitals, social services, and transportation, by the establishment of parallel institutions or of separate facilities for blacks and coloreds in a particular institution. Under territorial segregation, racial groups are restricted to certain territories. Territorial segregation is one expression of the policy of apartheid in the Republic of South Africa. Institutional segregation is usually accompanied by the territorial isolation of racial groups, as in the Republic of South Africa and Rhodesia. REFERENCESGeevskii, I. A. SShA: negritianskaiaproblema. Moscow, 1973.segregation[‚seg·rə′gā·shən]segregationsegregationsegregationsegregation[seg″rĕ-ga´shun]seg·re·ga·tion(seg'rĕ-gā'shŭn),segregation(sĕg′rĭ-gā′shən)seg·re·ga·tion(seg'rĕ-gā'shŭn)segregation
SegregationSegregationThe act or process of separating a race, class, or ethnic group from a society's general population. Segregation in the United States has been practiced, for the most part, on African Americans. Segregation by law, or de jure segregation, of African Americans was developed by state legislatures and local lawmaking bodies in southern states shortly after the Civil War. De facto segregation, or inadvertent segregation, continues to exist in varying degrees in both northern and southern states. De facto segregation arises from social and economic factors and cannot be traced to official government action. For example, Zoning laws that forbid multifamily housing can have the effect of excluding all but the wealthiest persons from a particular community. De jure segregation was instituted in the southern states in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The state legislatures in the Yonkers, New York, Battles SegregationIn 1980, the Justice Department and the Yonkers branch of the National Association of the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) filed a civil lawsuit against the city of Yonkers, New York, the Yonkers School Board, and the Yonkers Community Development Agency, charging that the city had engaged in systematic segregation for the previous 30 years. The plaintiffs alleged that the city government had disproportionately restricted new subsidized housing projects to certain areas of the city already heavily populated by minorities. The case marked the first time racial segregation charges were levied against housing and school officials in the same suit. After years of preparation and a three-month trial, the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York found that the defendants had in fact segregated the city's housing and schools based on racial identity. United States v. Yonkers Board of Education 624 F.Supp. 1276 (S.D.N.Y. 1985). The city was ordered to designate sites for public housing by November 1986, but the city refused to comply during the appeals process. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit upheld the racial discrimination rulings (837 F.2d 1181 [2nd Cir. 1987]) but did not resolve the compliance issue. The U.S. Supreme Court denied the city's petition for certiorari, and in January 1988 the parties agreed to a Consent Decree that established a new housing plan. The Yonkers city council voted to approve the decree, which was submitted to the trial court and accepted. The city was to pass legislation outlining the new housing plan within 90 days. The city did not pass the legislation by the deadline, and the Justice Department and the Yonkers NAACP submitted a "Long-Term Plan Order" to the trial court, which ordered the city to pass the legislation by August 1, 1988. The city council did vote, but the measure was defeated 4–3. The trial court held the city and the council in Contempt, a move affirmed by the Second Circuit. The city requested a stay of the sanctions from the Supreme Court. The stay was granted, but only for the individual council members; the city incurred stiff fines totaling nearly $1 million per day. The council, by a vote of 5–2, enacted an Affordable Housing Ordinance on September 9, 1988. In 1990, the Supreme Court ruled 5–4 that the trial court had the right to sanction the city, but it had overstepped its bounds in sanctioning the individual council members. Spallone v. United States, 493 U.S. 265, 111 S. Ct 625, 107, L. Ed. 2d 644 (1990). In 1993, the Yonkers Board of Education and the Yonkers NAACP reactivated the original case, alleging that while the city schools were no longer pursuing policies that were pursued or implemented in a racially-identifiable manner, vestiges of segregation remained. The plaintiffs included the state of New York in this new suit because, they believed, the state had exacerbated the problem by continually underfunding Yonkers. The trial court agreed with the plaintiffs about the segregation and found that the city needed additional money to carry out meaningful desegregation. The court refused to hold the state of New York fiscally responsible because the state had never affirmatively participated in the segregation. United States v. Yonkers Board of Education, 880 F. Supp. 212 (S.D.N.Y. 1995). The Second Circuit appeals court vacated the trial court's decision regarding the state's fiscal responsibility, holding that the state had a fiscal obligation to alleviate segregation in Yonkers. United States v. Yonkers Board of Education, 96 F.3d 600 (2d Cir. 1996), cert. Denied 117 U.S. 2479, 138 L. Ed.2d 988 (1996). Still another trial ensued. The state attempted to prove that there were no vestiges of segregation in the Yonkers public schools, but the court thought otherwise and ordered the city and the state to share in the costs of a second desegregation plan—devised by the court—called the "Educational Improvement Plan." United States v. Yonkers Board of Education, 984 F. Supp 687, 123 Ed. Law Rep 544 (1997) (S.D.N.Y.). The next several years saw little agreement over progress or culpability, but the parties pushed on in the hope of reaching common ground. Early in 2002 a pact was announced that would provide $300 million in state funding to the school district over a five-year period, to be used to fund programs that boost academic achievement for all city students. Under the terms of the agreement, a monitor was supposed to be assigned to ensure that the school district was living up to its promises. As of March 2003 the district had been unsuccessful in filling the position, which led some observers to question its commitment to the pact. Further readingsFeld, Jayne J. 2003. "Schools Reopen Search for Desegregation Pact Monitor." Journal News (March 25). Reid, Karla Scoon. 2002. "Yonkers Desegregation Suit May Be Nearing End." Education Week (January 16). Cross-referencesCivil Rights Acts; Discrimination. southern states accomplished de jure segregation by creating separate facilities, services, and areas for African Americans. Blacks were separated from the rest of society in virtually every facility, service, and circumstance, including schools, public drinking fountains, public lavatories, restaurants, theaters, hotels and motels, welfare services, hospitals, Cemeteries, residences, military facilities, and all modes of transportation. The quality of these facilities and services was invariably inferior to the facilities and services used by the rest of the communities. Laws in many states also prohibited miscegenation, or marriage between racially mixed couples. If an African American failed to observe segregation and used facilities reserved for white persons, she could be arrested and prosecuted. In 1896 the U.S. Supreme Court gave explicit approval to segregation in plessy v. ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 16 S. Ct. 1138, 41 L. Ed. 256 (1896). The High Court declared in Plessy that segregation did not violate the equal protection clause of the U.S. Constitution's Fourteenth Amendment if the separate facilities and services for African Americans were equal to the facilities and services for white persons. This separate-but-equal doctrine survived until 1954. That year, in brown v. board of education, 347 U.S. 483, 74 S. Ct. 686, 98 L. Ed. 873 (1954), the Court reversed the Plessy decision. In Brown, the Court ruled that state-sponsored segregation did violate the guarantee of equal protection under the laws provided to all citizens in the Fourteenth Amendment. The Brown case concerned only the segregation of schools, but the Court's rationale was used throughout the 1950s to strike down all the remaining state and local segregation laws. In the 1960s Congress took steps to curtail segregation in private life. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (42 U.S.C.A. § 2000a et seq.) forbade segregation in all privately owned public facilities subject to any form of federal control under the Interstate Commerce Clause in Article I, Section 8, Clause 3, of the U.S. Constitution. Facilities covered by the act included restaurants, hotels, retail stores, and recreational facilities. States began to follow suit by passing laws that prohibited discrimination in housing and employment. In 1968 the Supreme Court ruled that a seller or lessor of property could not refuse to sell or rent to a person based on that person's race or color (Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co., 392 U.S. 409, 88 S. Ct. 2186, 20 L. Ed. 2d 1189 [1968]). In 1971 the Court held in swann v. charlotte-mecklenburg board of education, 402 U.S. 1, 91 S. Ct. 1267, 28 L. Ed. 2d 554 (1971), that busing schoolchildren to different schools was an acceptable means of combating de facto segregation in schools. However, subsequent court decisions have rejected the forced Integration of predominantly white suburban school districts with largely black urban districts, and public education remains effectively segregated in many areas of the United States. Cross-referencesCivil Rights; Integration; Jim Crow Laws; School Desegregation. See also primary documents in "From Segregation to Civil Rights" section of Appendix. segregationSegregationsegregationsegregation
Synonyms for segregation
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segregation - (genetics) the separation of paired alleles during meiosis so that members of each pair of alleles appear in different gametes